AP Lang Semester 1 Rhetorical Analysis (RAE) Vocabulary

Connotation

the secondary, implied, or suggested meaning of a word. The word "weasel" suggests negativity—a tendency to lie or cheat or steal.

Denotation

the actual, literal meaning of the word. Weasel simply means a slender, carnivorous mammal.

Diction

(word choice) a writer or speaker's choice of words. Synonymous with style. Choosing the words "lied about" rather than "mistakenly stated" is a choice in diction.

Syntax

The grammatical order in which words are placed. It might be broken for effect.

Tone

The attitude the writer takes towards her subject, or in her writing. When describing tone, we use adjectives: angry, sarcastic, solemn, playful, timid, etc.

Explicit

Directly stated. Leaving no question about the meaning.

Implicit

implied, but not directly stated. Hinted at.

Infer

To deduce or conclude information based on facts or evidence—rather than being explicitly told.

Parallelism

similarity of structure in a pair or series of related words, phrases or clauses. "Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more."

Periodic sentence

One in which the writer builds suspense by beginning with subordinate elements and postponing the main clause. "His composure shaken, his confidence broken, his limbs twitching, his walrus angry, he wondered if he would ever ask out another girl."

Cumulative sentence

one in which the subordinate elements come at the end to call attention to them. "He learned to fix cars from Alice McMahon, an elderly spinster who used to party with Volvo mechanics."

Balanced sentence

one in which two parallel elements are set off against each other like equal weights on a scale. Both parts of the sentence have the same form. "If a liberated society will not help the weak, a liberated society cannot save the strong."

Antithesis

Opposition or contrast of words or ideas within a balanced sentence. "Many are called, but few are chosen." These words much be truly opposites: night/day, hot/cold, life/death, etc.

Inversion

The reversal of normal, grammatical word order—often for emphasis. "Never should you forget who your boss is." "The platypus is more important/What is more important is the platypus." "Smart are you." --Yoda.

Analogy/analogous

a comparison of similar things—usually using something familiar to explain something unfamiliar. Water pipes for electrical circuits.

Qualification (in argument or logic)

A restriction in meaning or application. "Subject A's premise would work very well under a totalitarian government, but in a democratic government, the premise seems unlikely to succeed."

Logical Fallacies

Incorrect reasoning (often intentional) in argument. Fallacies often exploit emotional triggers in the anticipated audience. (There are many different logical fallacies; we will learn many by name this year.) EX. Argument: Cutting people is a crime. Surgeons cut people. Therefore, surgeons are criminals.

Metaphor

comparison not using like or as. Or, a thing regarded as representative or symbolic of something else, esp. something abstract

Simile

comparison using like or as

Apostrophe

A dramatic address to someone not present. "Oh, Charles Dickens, where are you now?"

Allusion

an indirect reference to something outside the text—usually another work of art. "Don't be a scrooge." (Notice there's no mention of Charles Dickens or the title, A Christmas Carol? An allusion is an indirect reference.)

Hyperbole

Obvious and intentional exaggeration—for rhetoric

Understatement

Where the speaker deliberately portrays the situation as less serious or important than it really is. "It's just a flesh wound." (Black Knight, after having both arms cut off, in Monty Python's the Holy Grail)

Paradox

a seemingly contradictory assertion that may have some truth in it. Ex. "What a pity that youth must be wasted on the young" (George Bernard Shaw). Ex. War is peace; Freedom is slavery; Ignorance is strength. (George Orwell, 1984)

Epithet

a descriptive word, phrase or title: ex. "Frederick the Great," It can also mean name calling.

Euphemism

using a more polite term for a coarse or unpleasant term

Conceit

an extended metaphor—often the basis for an entire poem. "Love is a rose... blush as petals...steadfast as the stem...spiteful as thorns...enduring as roots...."

Metonymy/Synecdoche

a figure of speech consisting of the use of the name of one thing for that of another with which it is associated ("The white house said today"—meaning, the press secretary of the current administration said); The use of a part of something to represent the whole.("Ten sails crossed the sea" -meaning, ten ships crossed the ocean). Note: These two terms are considered the same thing by CollegeBoard, but not by colleges.

Alliteration

repetition of initial sounds

Onomatopoeia

the use of a word whose sound imitates the act or thing it names. The "buzzing" of a bee, for example, or the sound, "boom."

Objective statement

...is completely unbiased. It is not affected by the speaker's previous experiences or tastes. It is verifiable by looking up facts. Generally, one cannot argue with this statement.

Subjective statement

...has been colored by the character of the speaker or writer. It is an opinion; it often has a bias. They are often the root of arguments and are "subject" to personal opinion.

Cliché

an overused statement or idea.

Satire

corrective ridicule

Irony

when the literal meaning is opposite the actual meaning.

Parody

mocking imitation

Archetype

the original pattern or model of a character or idea that is frequently copied or repeated. Merlin, Gandolf, Dumbledore, Obi-wan Kenobi: same guy, different names.

Histrionic

deliberately dramatic or theatrical.

Wry

cleverly and often ironically or grimly humorous. It technically means "bent," like the smile of an ironic, clever person.

Juxtapose/juxtaposition

an act or instance of placing things/words/concepts close together or side by side for comparison or contrast. A horrible troll holding a beautiful orchid, for example.

Deductive reasoning

Reasoning that moves from the general (rule or law) to the specific (instance). "Teachers at Amador are generally mammals. Mr. Thayer must be a mammal."

Inductive reasoning

reasoning that moves from the specific (instance) to the general (presumed rule or law). "Mr. Thayer is 44 years old. Teachers must all be 44 years old." (Note: This is often faulty reasoning. It's the kind of reasoning that leads to stereotypes and overgeneralizations. We usually want to recognize, but avoid this type of reasoning.)

Anaphora

repetition of the initial word or phrase in a series of clauses or phrases for emphasis and rhythm. "War is the enemy. War is the murder of children. War is the ravager of marriages. War is the destroyer of culture."

Epistrophe

The repetition of the same word or words at the end of successive phrases or clauses. This is the counterpart to anaphora.

Aphorism

A pithy observation that contains a general truth, such as, "if it ain't broke, don't fix it." (almost synonymous with epigram—but not paradoxical or necessarily poetic)

Analysis

the separating of material into its constituent elements and determining its essential features and their relations

Argumentation

the act of using reasons to justify claims.

Syllogism

a logical argument in which one proposition (the conclusion) is inferred from two others (the premises). It's a form of deductive reasoning. It goes like this: (1) All dogs are mammals. (2) Mingo is a dog. (3) Therefore, Mingo is a mammal

Think transitive property of equality, also log --> logic

Chiasmus

A rhetorical or literary figure in which words, grammatical constructions, or concepts are repeated in reverse order, in the same or a modified form. EX."Poetry is the record of the best and happiest moments of the happiest and best minds." EX. "Pleasure's a sin, and sometimes sin's a pleasure" (Byron). EX. "He was wise and compassionate as a counselor, but as a teacher inefficient and ineffectual." EX. "It's not the men in my life, it's the life in my men" (Mae West).

Ellipsis

omission of one or more words for conciseness and effect. Ex. "Youth is a blunder; manhood a struggle; old age a regret." (The word "is" is omitted after the first clause.)

Not to be confused with (...), but perhaps remembering that both "ellipses" are used to omit words will help you remember this vocabulary.

Asyndeton

omission of conjunction before the last item in a series. Ex. "Government of the people, by the people, for the people..."

Throw away your preconceptions of bad grammar! It's time to get RHETORICAL.

Allegory

a story in which things and people represent something entirely other—an idea or a philosophy. Allegories typically contain within a moral or lesson.

Simple Sentence

subject-verb (I went to the store.)

Compound Sentence

2 independent clauses joined by a conjunction (I went to the store, and I bought candy.)

Complex Sentence

independent clause and dependent clause (While traveling to the store, I saw my friend.)

Antecedents

a word, phrase, clause, or sentence, to which another word (especially a pronoun) refers. "Mike lost his penguin and he can't find it."

Mike is the antecedent of "his" and "he"

penguin is the antecedent of "it"

Nostalgia

a sentimental longing or wistful affection for the past.

Enumeration

the listing of things; to list one thing after another in prose.

Listing "numerous" things? That's enumeration.

Dichotomy

a division or contrast between two things that are or are represented as being opposed or entirely different. "There doesn't need to be a dichotomy between religion and science."

Di --> two

Hypophora

Asking a question and then answering that same question. "What did you come here for? To learn how to have a good time!"

Rebuttal

merely a response to the counterargument, advancing your side of an issue--may not be effective, may not prove someone or something wrong.

Refutation

to use evidence to prove a counterargument is wrong--this is done in response to another argument. When a rebuttal is absolutely effective, it becomes this.

Rebuttal + proof = this

Concession

acknowledging other points of view--admitting that the opposition has a good point. This builds credibility.

"I concede..."

Message (Rhetorical Situation Component)

the subject matter of a work of rhetoric.

Exigence (Rhetorical Situation Component)

the provocation (or reason) to make the argument or work of rhetoric. Why did the writer give this speech?

E.g. They were paid to do it.

Purpose (Rhetorical Situation Component)

what writer or speaker hopes to achieve by writing or giving a speech.

Audience (Rhetorical Situation Component)

awareness of the specific, intended audience of a work of rhetoric—awareness of the traits and perspectives of this audience.

Context (Rhetorical Situation Component)

The time, place, occasion, or other relevant contextual information about the moment of the work of rhetoric.

Writer/speaker (Rhetorical Situation Component)

Our awareness of how the writer or speaker's perceptions, or perspective, governs the text.

Appeal to Force (the "Might-Makes-Right" Fallacy)

This argument uses force, the threat of force, or some other unpleasant backlash to make the audience accept a conclusion.

TIP:

Why do we give critiques? Because otherwise we have to write an additional essay.

Ad Hominem Fallacy

Attacking or praising the people who make an argument rather than discussing the argument itself.

TIP: "To the human" --> To the people who make the argument

Bandwagon Approach

"Everybody is doing it." This argument asserts that, since the majority of people believes an argument or chooses a particular course of action, the argument must be true or the course of action must be the best one.

"Whenever you find yourself on the side of the majority, it's time to pause and reflect." --Mark Twain.

Appeal to Tradition

This line of thought asserts that a premise must be true because people have always believed it or done it.

Appeal to Improper Authority

An appeal to a person in a high position who is not an expert in the topic, such as a famous person or a source that may not be reliable.

TIP:

Appealing to someone who is an expert at something unrelated to what you are arguing

Appeal to Biased Authority

In this sort of appeal, the authority is one who truly is knowledgeable on the topic, but unfortunately one who may have professional or personal motivations that render that judgment suspect.

TIP:

Appealing to someone who is an expert at what you are arguing, except you paid them off to support you

Begging the Question

The fallacy is committed when someone has made a conclusion based on a premise that lacks support.

For example, stating that "chinaberries are good for people because they grow on trees." The unsupported premise here is that things that grow on trees are inherently good for people.

The most common form of this fallacy is when the claim is initially loaded with the same conclusion one has yet to prove. For instance, suppose a debater states, "Useless courses like Art 101 should be dropped from the curriculum." The debater then immediately moves on, illustrating that spending money on a useless course is something nobody wants. The fact that the course is useless is assumed without proof. The debater is implicitly "begging" the audience to go along with (to accept without evidence) this proposition.

Another example: "Since killing is morally wrong, the death penalty is morally wrong." Another example: "Cats, because they are filthy animals, should never be allowed in college dorms."

Two notes on this fallacy:

(1) Many people misuse the term, and use it to mean "raises the question of." For example, "Tanning salons beg the question of skin cancer." This is an incorrect use; unfortunately, it is very common, even among educated people.

(2) This fallacy is so similar to circular reasoning that many people use the terms interchangeably. You'll need to know the difference in this class, but be prepared to encounter others who don't differentiate.

TIP: "BEGGING the audience not to QUESTION the claim"

Circular Reasoning

A subtype of begging the question. Often the authors word the two statements sufficiently differently to obscure the fact that that the same proposition occurs as both a premise and a conclusion.

For example: A confused student argues: "You can't give me a C. I'm an A student!"

Another Example: "God exists. We know this because the Bible says so. And we know the Bible is correct because the Bible was written by God."

Another Example:

Janet: "Your resume looks great but I need a reference." Rick: "Julie can give me a good reference."

Janet: "How do I know that Julie is trustworthy?"

Rick: "I can vouch for her."

TIP:

Unlike syllogism, where the premise can be inferred from the conclusion, this fallacy uses the premise as the conclusion and the conclusion as the premise, thus no such prediction can be made.

What are we proving? The claim. How are we proving it? This evidence. Where does the evidence come from? The claim.

Hasty Generalization (Jumping to Conclusions)

Mistaken use of inductive reasoning when there are too few samples to prove a point.

Misleading Statistic

Suppose an individual argues that women must be incompetent drivers, and he points out that last Tuesday at the Department of Motor Vehicles, 50% of the women who took the driving test failed.

E.g. not specifying sample size, changing scale to look misleading, ignoring contradicting data, etc.

False Causality Fallacy (Causation/Correlation Error)

This fallacy establishes a cause/effect relationship that does not exist. There are various Latin names for various analyses of the fallacy: "After this, therefore because of this." This type of false cause occurs when the writer mistakenly assumes that, because the first event preceded the second event, it must mean the first event must have caused the later one.

TIP: "Correlation does not imply causation"

The Red Herring Fallacy

This fallacy is a deliberate attempt to change the subject or divert the argument from the real question at issue.

Straw Man Fallacy

A writer creates an oversimplified, easy-to-refute argument, places it in the mouth of his opponent, and then tries to "win" the debate by knocking down that empty or trivial argument.

TIP: Turning the other side into a straw man that is easy to beat

Slippery Slope Fallacy (The Camel's Nose Fallacy)

The speaker argues that, once the first step is undertaken, a second or third step will inevitably follow, much like the way one step on a slippery incline will cause a person to fall and slide all the way to the bottom.

False Dilemma Fallacy (Either/Or Fallacy)

This fallacy occurs when a writer builds an argument upon the assumption that there are only two choices or possible outcomes when actually there are several.

TIP: Di-lemma --> two sides (making things black and white when there is a gray area)

Faulty Analogy

Relying only on comparisons to prove a point rather than arguing deductively and inductively.

Note: No evidence, just analogies

Equivocation

Using a word in a different way than the author used it in the original premise, or changing definitions halfway through a discussion.

Example: "He said it was statistically significant, which must mean it is important."

Stacking the Deck (cherry-picking evidence)

In this fallacy, the speaker "stacks the deck" in her favor by ignoring examples that disprove the point, and listing only those examples that support her case.

TIP: Cherry-picking favorable cards to stack onto your deck

Argument from the Negative

This fallacy asserts that, since one position is untenable, the opposite stance must be true.

Example: "You cannot prove that unicorns do not exist, thus they do."

Loaded Question Fallacy

Phrasing a question or statement in such as way as to imply another unproven statement is true without evidence or discussion.

Example: "Has your addiction stopped yet?" --> loads the question my assuming the person asked was addicted in the first place