Key Concepts in American Political Parties, Interest Groups, and Media

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88 Terms

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Linkage institution

Structure that connects citizens to government (e.g. parties, interest groups, elections, media)

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Party platform

Statement of a party's positions on key issues

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Party coalition

The groups and interests that support a party

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Two-party system

Political system in which two major parties dominate

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Third party / minor party

Any party outside the two major ones

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Party realignment

Shifts in the coalition of supporters and dominance of one party over another

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Dealignment

Reduction in party identification; more independent voters

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Primary / caucus

Methods by which parties select their nominee

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Frontloading

States scheduling primaries earlier in the calendar to have more influence

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Superdelegates

Delegates (often party elites) who are not bound by primary results (notably in the Democratic Party)

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Soft money

Unregulated contributions to parties (often for "party building" rather than candidate support)

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Hard money

Regulated, contribution to a candidate or campaign

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Ticket splitting

Voting for candidates of different parties on the same ballot

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Divided government

When different parties control the executive and legislative branches

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Gridlock

Difficulty in passing legislation when government is divided

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Candidate-centered campaigns

Campaigns focused more on the candidate than on the party brand

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National convention

Party gathering to nominate presidential candidate and adopt platform

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Realignment election

Election that marks a durable change in party coalitions

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Critical election

An election with unusually high stakes or turnout that signals a new political era

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Interest group

Organized group that seeks to influence public policy

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Economic interest groups

Groups representing business, labor, agriculture, professionals

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Public interest groups

Groups that claim to serve the public good (beyond narrow interests)

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Single-issue group

Interest group focused on one policy area (e.g. abortion, environment)

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Lobbying

Direct efforts to influence policy makers

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Grassroots lobbying

Mobilizing ordinary citizens to contact policymakers

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Astroturf lobbying

Fake grassroots efforts (appear bottom-up but organized top-down)

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Amicus curiae ("friend of the court") brief

Brief filed by groups in court cases to influence outcome

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Litigation

Use of lawsuits to influence public policy or legal interpretation

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Free rider problem

People benefit from a group's efforts without joining or contributing

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PAC (Political Action Committee)

Organization that raises and spends money to elect/defeat candidates

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Super PAC

Independent expenditure-only PAC (cannot donate directly to candidates)

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Lobbying disclosure / regulation

Laws requiring lobbyists to register, disclose expenditures, etc.

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Revolving door

Movement of personnel between government positions and interest group or lobbying jobs

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pluralism

Theory that many interest groups compete, preventing any one from dominating

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Indirect lobbying

Influencing policymakers through public pressure or constituent mobilization

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Direct lobbying

Personal contact with officials to influence policy

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Grassroots mobilization

Encouraging public participation (petitions, demonstrations)

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Mass media

Channels that reach large audiences (TV, newspapers, radio, internet)

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Agenda setting

Media's power to influence which issues the public considers important

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Framing

How media presents and structures a story to affect perception

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Sound bite

Short, memorable clip from speech or media

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Media event

Public event staged primarily for media coverage

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New media / digital media / social media

Internet platforms (blogs, Twitter, Facebook) changing how news is produced and consumed

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Fourth branch / Fourth estate

Concept that media acts as an unofficial branch of government or check on power

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Leaks / whistleblowing

Disclosure of confidential information to media

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Muckraking

Investigative journalism exposing corruption or scandal

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Declaration of Independence

announced the American colonies' separation from Britain and outlined principles of natural rights, popular sovereignty, and social contract theory.

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Articles of Confederation

the first U.S. governing document; created a weak national government with most powers left to the states, revealing the need for a stronger central government.

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Constitution of the United States

established a system of government based on federalism and separation of powers, with checks and balances among the three branches.

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Federalist No. 10

James Madison argues that a large republic best controls the effects of factions by diluting their influence and protecting minority rights.

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Federalist No. 51

Madison explains how checks and balances and separation of powers prevent tyranny and protect liberty.

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Brutus No. 1

Anti-Federalist essay warning that a large republic would weaken local representation, threaten liberty, and give too much power to the national government.

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Federalist No. 70

Alexander Hamilton argues for a single, energetic executive to ensure accountability and effective leadership.

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Federalist No. 78

Hamilton defends judicial independence and life tenure for judges, arguing the courts are the "least dangerous branch" but must have judicial review.

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Marbury v. Madison (1803)

established judicial review, giving the Supreme Court the authority to declare laws and executive actions unconstitutional.

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McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

upheld the necessary and proper clause and supremacy clause, ruling that Congress could create a national bank and that states could not tax it.

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Baker v. Carr (1962)

established the principle of "one person, one vote" by allowing federal courts to review redistricting issues under the Equal Protection Clause.

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New York Times Co. v. United States (1971)

reinforced freedom of the press, limiting government use of prior restraint even in cases of national security.

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Shaw v. Reno (1993)

ruled that racial gerrymandering violates the Equal Protection Clause and must be strictly scrutinized.

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United States v. Lopez (1995)

limited the power of Congress under the commerce clause, ruling that gun possession in school zones was not an economic activity.

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Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission (2010)

held that corporate funding of independent political expenditures is protected free speech under the First Amendment.

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Splinter Party

A type of third party that breaks away from a major political party, often centered around a strong leader or internal disagreement. Example: Theodore Roosevelt's Progressive ("Bull Moose") Party splitting from the Republicans in 1912.

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Single-Issue Party

A type of third party that focuses on one major policy concern or issue, often influencing larger parties to adopt their stance. Example: The Free Soil Party, which opposed the expansion of slavery.

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Ideological Party

A type of third party based on a comprehensive set of political beliefs or ideology, usually long-lasting but smaller in influence. Example: The Libertarian Party or the Socialist Party.

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Reason Third Parties Don't Succeed in America

single-member districts with a winner-take-all system

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First Amendment

Protects freedom of speech, press, religion, assembly, and petition against government interference.

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Freedom of the Press Clause

Prevents government censorship or prior restraint of published materials.

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Prior Restraint

Government actions that prohibit speech or publication before it occurs; generally unconstitutional except in rare cases (e.g., national security).

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New York Times v. United States (1971)

Reinforced protection against prior restraint when the Court allowed publication of the Pentagon Papers.

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Watchdog Role

The media's function of investigating and exposing wrongdoing in government or politics.

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Gatekeeper Role

The media's role in determining which stories and issues receive attention.

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Scorekeeper Role

The media's tendency to track political reputations, polls, and who is "winning" or "losing" in campaigns.

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Freedom of Expression

Broader concept protecting speech, press, assembly, and symbolic acts from government restriction.

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Winner-Take-All System

Electoral system in which the candidate with the most votes in a state receives all its electoral votes.

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Electoral College

Constitutional system that formally elects the president; each state's electors equal its total representation in Congress.

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Third Party

A political party other than the two major parties; often struggles to win due to institutional barriers.

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Spoiler Effect

When a third-party candidate draws votes from a major party, influencing the election's outcome.

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Single-Member Districts

Electoral system in which each district elects one representative; discourages minor party success.

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Major Political Parties

Broad-based organizations seeking to win elections and control government by appealing to diverse voters.

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Party Realignment

A major shift in party coalitions and voter loyalty that leads to a new political era.

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Coalition Building

Process by which parties or interest groups unite diverse groups to achieve shared policy or electoral goals.

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Party Platform

A party's official statement of policies, goals, and positions on major issues.

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Campaign Finance

The fundraising and spending of money to influence elections, often regulated by federal law.

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Interest Group

An organization that seeks to influence public policy by lobbying government officials and mobilizing members.

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Lobbying

Direct interaction with public officials to influence policy decisions.

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Political Action Committee (PAC)

Organization that raises and spends money to elect or defeat political candidates.

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Linkage Institutions

Structures such as political parties, interest groups, media, and elections that connect citizens to government.

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Political Participation

The ways citizens influence government policy and leadership, including voting, joining parties, or engaging in activism.