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Linkage institution
Structure that connects citizens to government (e.g. parties, interest groups, elections, media)
Party platform
Statement of a party's positions on key issues
Party coalition
The groups and interests that support a party
Two-party system
Political system in which two major parties dominate
Third party / minor party
Any party outside the two major ones
Party realignment
Shifts in the coalition of supporters and dominance of one party over another
Dealignment
Reduction in party identification; more independent voters
Primary / caucus
Methods by which parties select their nominee
Frontloading
States scheduling primaries earlier in the calendar to have more influence
Superdelegates
Delegates (often party elites) who are not bound by primary results (notably in the Democratic Party)
Soft money
Unregulated contributions to parties (often for "party building" rather than candidate support)
Hard money
Regulated, contribution to a candidate or campaign
Ticket splitting
Voting for candidates of different parties on the same ballot
Divided government
When different parties control the executive and legislative branches
Gridlock
Difficulty in passing legislation when government is divided
Candidate-centered campaigns
Campaigns focused more on the candidate than on the party brand
National convention
Party gathering to nominate presidential candidate and adopt platform
Realignment election
Election that marks a durable change in party coalitions
Critical election
An election with unusually high stakes or turnout that signals a new political era
Interest group
Organized group that seeks to influence public policy
Economic interest groups
Groups representing business, labor, agriculture, professionals
Public interest groups
Groups that claim to serve the public good (beyond narrow interests)
Single-issue group
Interest group focused on one policy area (e.g. abortion, environment)
Lobbying
Direct efforts to influence policy makers
Grassroots lobbying
Mobilizing ordinary citizens to contact policymakers
Astroturf lobbying
Fake grassroots efforts (appear bottom-up but organized top-down)
Amicus curiae ("friend of the court") brief
Brief filed by groups in court cases to influence outcome
Litigation
Use of lawsuits to influence public policy or legal interpretation
Free rider problem
People benefit from a group's efforts without joining or contributing
PAC (Political Action Committee)
Organization that raises and spends money to elect/defeat candidates
Super PAC
Independent expenditure-only PAC (cannot donate directly to candidates)
Lobbying disclosure / regulation
Laws requiring lobbyists to register, disclose expenditures, etc.
Revolving door
Movement of personnel between government positions and interest group or lobbying jobs
pluralism
Theory that many interest groups compete, preventing any one from dominating
Indirect lobbying
Influencing policymakers through public pressure or constituent mobilization
Direct lobbying
Personal contact with officials to influence policy
Grassroots mobilization
Encouraging public participation (petitions, demonstrations)
Mass media
Channels that reach large audiences (TV, newspapers, radio, internet)
Agenda setting
Media's power to influence which issues the public considers important
Framing
How media presents and structures a story to affect perception
Sound bite
Short, memorable clip from speech or media
Media event
Public event staged primarily for media coverage
New media / digital media / social media
Internet platforms (blogs, Twitter, Facebook) changing how news is produced and consumed
Fourth branch / Fourth estate
Concept that media acts as an unofficial branch of government or check on power
Leaks / whistleblowing
Disclosure of confidential information to media
Muckraking
Investigative journalism exposing corruption or scandal
Declaration of Independence
announced the American colonies' separation from Britain and outlined principles of natural rights, popular sovereignty, and social contract theory.
Articles of Confederation
the first U.S. governing document; created a weak national government with most powers left to the states, revealing the need for a stronger central government.
Constitution of the United States
established a system of government based on federalism and separation of powers, with checks and balances among the three branches.
Federalist No. 10
James Madison argues that a large republic best controls the effects of factions by diluting their influence and protecting minority rights.
Federalist No. 51
Madison explains how checks and balances and separation of powers prevent tyranny and protect liberty.
Brutus No. 1
Anti-Federalist essay warning that a large republic would weaken local representation, threaten liberty, and give too much power to the national government.
Federalist No. 70
Alexander Hamilton argues for a single, energetic executive to ensure accountability and effective leadership.
Federalist No. 78
Hamilton defends judicial independence and life tenure for judges, arguing the courts are the "least dangerous branch" but must have judicial review.
Marbury v. Madison (1803)
established judicial review, giving the Supreme Court the authority to declare laws and executive actions unconstitutional.
McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)
upheld the necessary and proper clause and supremacy clause, ruling that Congress could create a national bank and that states could not tax it.
Baker v. Carr (1962)
established the principle of "one person, one vote" by allowing federal courts to review redistricting issues under the Equal Protection Clause.
New York Times Co. v. United States (1971)
reinforced freedom of the press, limiting government use of prior restraint even in cases of national security.
Shaw v. Reno (1993)
ruled that racial gerrymandering violates the Equal Protection Clause and must be strictly scrutinized.
United States v. Lopez (1995)
limited the power of Congress under the commerce clause, ruling that gun possession in school zones was not an economic activity.
Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission (2010)
held that corporate funding of independent political expenditures is protected free speech under the First Amendment.
Splinter Party
A type of third party that breaks away from a major political party, often centered around a strong leader or internal disagreement. Example: Theodore Roosevelt's Progressive ("Bull Moose") Party splitting from the Republicans in 1912.
Single-Issue Party
A type of third party that focuses on one major policy concern or issue, often influencing larger parties to adopt their stance. Example: The Free Soil Party, which opposed the expansion of slavery.
Ideological Party
A type of third party based on a comprehensive set of political beliefs or ideology, usually long-lasting but smaller in influence. Example: The Libertarian Party or the Socialist Party.
Reason Third Parties Don't Succeed in America
single-member districts with a winner-take-all system
First Amendment
Protects freedom of speech, press, religion, assembly, and petition against government interference.
Freedom of the Press Clause
Prevents government censorship or prior restraint of published materials.
Prior Restraint
Government actions that prohibit speech or publication before it occurs; generally unconstitutional except in rare cases (e.g., national security).
New York Times v. United States (1971)
Reinforced protection against prior restraint when the Court allowed publication of the Pentagon Papers.
Watchdog Role
The media's function of investigating and exposing wrongdoing in government or politics.
Gatekeeper Role
The media's role in determining which stories and issues receive attention.
Scorekeeper Role
The media's tendency to track political reputations, polls, and who is "winning" or "losing" in campaigns.
Freedom of Expression
Broader concept protecting speech, press, assembly, and symbolic acts from government restriction.
Winner-Take-All System
Electoral system in which the candidate with the most votes in a state receives all its electoral votes.
Electoral College
Constitutional system that formally elects the president; each state's electors equal its total representation in Congress.
Third Party
A political party other than the two major parties; often struggles to win due to institutional barriers.
Spoiler Effect
When a third-party candidate draws votes from a major party, influencing the election's outcome.
Single-Member Districts
Electoral system in which each district elects one representative; discourages minor party success.
Major Political Parties
Broad-based organizations seeking to win elections and control government by appealing to diverse voters.
Party Realignment
A major shift in party coalitions and voter loyalty that leads to a new political era.
Coalition Building
Process by which parties or interest groups unite diverse groups to achieve shared policy or electoral goals.
Party Platform
A party's official statement of policies, goals, and positions on major issues.
Campaign Finance
The fundraising and spending of money to influence elections, often regulated by federal law.
Interest Group
An organization that seeks to influence public policy by lobbying government officials and mobilizing members.
Lobbying
Direct interaction with public officials to influence policy decisions.
Political Action Committee (PAC)
Organization that raises and spends money to elect or defeat political candidates.
Linkage Institutions
Structures such as political parties, interest groups, media, and elections that connect citizens to government.
Political Participation
The ways citizens influence government policy and leadership, including voting, joining parties, or engaging in activism.