Human Body Systems Final Exam Review

anterior

front

posterior

back

superior

higher

inferior

lower

medial

midline

lateral

away from the midline

proximal

close

distal

far

superficial

skin level/close to skin level

deep

further within than skin level

dorsal

spinal (back)

ventral

abdominal (front)

axial

main axis of the body (head, neck, and trunk)

appendicular

all appendages, which are attached to the axis

connective tissue

supports and connects all tissue types. includes adipose tissue (fat)

epithelial tissue

made of epithelial cells, aligned in sheets. lines outer surface of all organs, blood vessels, and human skin.

nervous tissue

makes nerves, spinal cord, and brain. made of neuron cells that receive, interpret, and respond to signals

muscular tissue

skeletal (voluntary), smooth (involuntary), and cardiac (involuntary) based on muscle.

adipose tissue

stores body fat w/ adipocytes (fat cells)

compact bone tissue

dense bone structure that provides strength and support

flat bone

layer of spongy bone between two thin layers of compact bone, marrow w/o a marrow cavity. ex: left parietal and sternum

long bone

shaft and two ends. thick outside layer w/ marrow cavity. ends are spongy. ex: humerus and femur

irregular bones

thin layers of spongy bone surrounded by compact bone. ex: thoracic vertebrae and mandible

short bones

cube shaped w/ equal horizontal & vertical measurements, mostly spongy w/ thin outside layer of compact bone. ex: carpal and patellae

osteoblasts

cells that help build bones

osteoclasts

cells that break down bones

bony callus formation

fibrocartilage callus is gradually replaced with a spongy bone callus. osteoclasts and osteoblasts appear

hematoma formation

broken blood vessels swell to form a mass (hematoma) between broken pieces. kills injured cells by reducing blood supply

fibrocartilage callus formation

new capillaries form in clotted blood in damaged area. fibrocartilage callus forms to close gap

bone remodeling

callus remodeled with osteoblasts and osteoclasts, bone heals over next few weeks/months

cast

external brace to support bone remodeling, usually only for children or minor adult fractures

intramedullary nailing

bone marrow removed from medullary canal, common in broken long bones where medullary canal is easy to navigate

external fixation

minimally invasive short-term fixation during emergency situation, likely to lead to infection

intramedullary plating

relatively large opening used to align metal plate with broken bone

spiral fracture

cockscrew-esque appearance fracturing all the way around the bone ("complete fracture")

impact/comminuted fracture

multiple fractures

transverse fracture

straight across the bone

oblique fracture

diagonal

greenstick

occurs when the bone bends so that only one side fractures, occurs in children who have more flexible bones

compression fracture

spinal

tendon

attaches skeletal muscle tissue to bones

epimysium

outermost layer of connective tissue surrounding skeletal muscle

perimysium

connective tissue surrounding bundles of fascicles

endomysium

separates single cell fibers from one another

fascicle

individual bundles of muscle fibers

myofibril

basic contracting units within muscle fibers

muscle rules

1. must have two attachments and must cross at at least 1 joint; 2. muscles always pull and get shorter

Insertion

The attachment that moves.

Origin

The stationary attachment.

Flexors

Muscles that decrease the angle between ventral surfaces of the body.

Extensors

Muscles that increase the angle between ventral surfaces of the body.

Opposing pairs

Muscles that work in pairs to perform opposite actions.

Muscle striations

Point to the attachments and show the direction of the motion.

Central nervous system

Consists of the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral nervous system

Nerves beyond the brain and spinal cord.

Cerebrum

Contains all four brain lobes.

Frontal lobe

Responsible for behavior, personality, voluntary muscle movements, planning, mood, emotions, social interaction, and attention.

Parietal lobe

Involved in sensing touch, temperature, pressure, pain, spatial processing, language, and long-term memory.

Occipital lobe

Responsible for visual perception and some forms of visual short-term memory.

Temporal lobe

Processes smell and sound, linguistic recognition, and visual memories.

Cerebellum

Area of the brain underneath the cerebrum, responsible for muscle control and balance.

Brain stem

Includes the medulla oblongata, pons, and midbrain; responsible for breathing, blood pressure regulation, sleeping, and waking.

Hypothalamus

Coordinates nervous system, pituitary gland activity, body temperature, thirst, hunger, homeostasis, sleep, and emotion.

Thalamus

Relays sensory information and is the center for pain perception.

Corpus callosum

Bundle of nerve fibers that communicates between the hemispheres.

Pituitary gland

Produces hormones and activates hormone production in other glands.

Dendrites

Branching protoplasmic processes that conduct impulses toward the cell body.

Cell membrane

Membrane surrounding cytoplasms of all cells.

Nucleus

Contains genetic material (chromosomes) for cell development and protein synthesis.

Cell body (soma)

Central part of the neuron that contains the nucleus and is the main component of gray matter.

Sensory neurons

Send signals to the brain.

Interneurons

Send signals within the brain.

Motor neurons

Send signals to muscles.

Axon

Long nerve cell process conducting impulses away from the cell body.

Nodes of Ranvier

Gaps between myelin sheaths on the axon of the neuron, allowing ions to diffuse.

Myelin sheath

Insulating layer around nerves, made of protein and fatty substances, allowing for electrical signal transmission.

Schwann cells

Cells that produce myelin sheaths.

Axon terminals

Endings of axons that change electrical impulses into chemical messages in the form of neurotransmitters.

Pineal gland

Regulates sleep and secretes melatonin (sleep hormone).

Thyroid gland

Major role in growth, development of the body, and metabolism.

Thymus

Makes white blood cells until puberty and releases hormones.

Adrenal glands

Releases hormones that help to regulate the body's response to stress, metabolism, blood pressure, and immune system.

Pancreas

Creates enzymes to break down sugars and fats, and hormones that regulate blood sugar, appetite, stomach acid, and stomach emptying.

testis

produces sperm, testosterone, which helps in the development of muscle, deep voices, and body hair

insulin

secreted by pancreas, essential to metabolism of carbs and glucose regulation

ovaries

produces estrogen and progesterone, to regulate reproduction and menstruation

liver

stores glucose from food as glycogen

glucagon

secreted by pancreatic endocrine cells to raise blood glucose levels, antagonistic to insulin

type 1 diabetes

pancreas doesn't produce insulin, due to immune system attacking cells in pancreas

type 2 diabetes

pancreatic insulin output decreases and body becomes resistant to insulin

pulmonary veins

vessels that bring oxygenated blood to the heart

left coronary artery

supplies blood to left side of heart

right coronary artery

supplies blood to right ventricle, atrium

sinoatrial node

generates an electrical signal that causes upper heart chambers (atria) to contract

atrioventricular node

controls passage of electrical signal from atria to ventricles

bundle of His

extends from AV node, receives electric signal from AV node to carry to the purkinje fibers

purkinje fibers

carry electrical impulses to ventricles, runs through the intraventricular system

capillaries

facilitate exchange of blood and oxygen with tissue

veins

carries oxygen-depleted blood to heart

arteries

distributes oxygen rich blood throughout body