PSY 120 Exam 2

Learning

Experience that results in a relatively permeant change in state of the learner

The two approaches to learning (main)

Classical and Operant conditioning

Two other types of learning

Observational and implicit learning

Classical Conditioning

When a neutral stimulus produces a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally produces a response

Acquisition

Phase of classical conditioning when the CS and the US are presented together

Extinction

Gradual elimination of a learned response that occurs when the US is no longer presented

Higher-order/ seconds-order conditioning

conditioning where the US is a stimulus that acquired its ability to produce learning from an earlier procedure in which it was used as a CS

Spontaneous recovery

Tendency of a learned behavior to recover from extinction after a rest period

Generalization

Process by which the CR is observed even though the CS is slightly different from the original one used during acquisition

Discrimination

Capacity to distinguish between similar but distinct stimuli

Operant Conditioning

Type of learning in which the consequences of an organism’s behavior determine whether it will be repeated in the future

Edward Thordike

Focused on instrumental behaviors and created a puzzle box to show the law of effect

Law of effect

repeatedly placing an organism in the same condition and learning the solution quickly happens after each time

Operant behavior

Behavior that an organism produces that has some impact on the environment, coined by B.F. Skinner

Reinforcer

Any stimulus or event that functions to increase the likelihood of the behavior that led to it; more effective than punishment in promoting learning (positive and negative)

Punisher

Any stimulus or event that functions to decrease the likelihood of the behaviors that led to it (positive and negative)

Overjustification effect

You often find less satisfaction in the things you already like doing if you get externally rewarded for it

Fixed interval schedule (FI)

reinforcements are presented at fixed time periods, provided the appropriate response is made (pay checks)

Variable interval schedule (VI)

Behavior is reinforced based on an average time that has expired since the last reinforcement (pop quizzes)

Fixed ratio schedule (FR)

Reinforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses have been made (store reward systems)

Variable ratio schedule (VR)

Delivery of reinforcement is based on a particular average number of responses (gambling)

Shaping

Learning that results from the reinforcement of successive steps to a final desired behavior

Superstitions

rare or odd behaviors may be repeated if they are accidentally reinforced, which may lead to mistaken beliefs regarding causal relationships

Taste aversions

behaviors we learn to survive

Biological preparedness

propensity for learning particular kinds of associations over others (the rats from the experiment)

Observational learning

Condition in which learning takes place by watching the actions of others

Albert Bandura

Studied aggressive observational learning using the Bobo doll experiment (children imitated adult behaviors)

Cramming

Neglecting to study for an extended period of time and then studying intensively just before and exam

Massed practice

studying information with little or no time between repetition

Distributed practice

Spreading out study activities with more time between repetition of the to-be-learned information

Memory

ability to store and retrieve information over time

Three key functions of memory

Encoding, storage, and retrieval

Encoding

process by which we transform what we perceive, think, or feel into an enduring memory

Storage

process of maintaining information in memory over time

Retrieval

Process of brining to mind information that has been previously encoded and stored

Three major ways to encode

Elaborative encoding, visual imagery encoding, organizational encoding

Elaborative encoding

process of actively relating new information to knowledge that is already in memory

Visual imagery encoding

process of storing new information by converting it into mental pictures

Organizational encoding

Process of categorizing information according to the relationships among a series of items

Sensory memory

Storage that holds sensory information for a few seconds or less, iconic memory (fast decaying visual information), echoic memory (fast decaying auditory information)

Stort-term memory/ working memory

storage that holds non-sensory information for more than a few seconds but less than a minute, can hold 7 (plus 2 minutes) items, rehearsal (process of keeping info in STM by mentally repeating it), Chunking (combining small pieces of info into large cluster), working memory (active maintenance and processing of information of STM)

Long-term memory (LTM)

storage that holds information for hours, days, weeks, or years; no known capacity

The Hippocampus

The critical ‘index’ for long term memory storage (looks like a seahorse)

Anterograde amnesia

Inability to transfer new information from the short-term into long-term

Retrograde amnesia

Inability to retrieve information that was acquired before a particular date, usually the date of an injury or operation

Consolidation

Process by which memories become stable in the brain

Reconsolidation

Memories can become vulnerable to disruption when they are recalled, requiring them to become consolidated again

Explicit/ declarative memory

Act of consciously or intentionally retrieving past experiences

Implicit memory

Influence of past experiences on later behavior, even without an effort to remember them or an awareness of the recollection

Priming

enhanced ability to think of a stimulus as a result of a recent exposure to the stimulus

Procedural memory

gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice or “knowing how” to do things

Semantic memory

Network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world

Episodic memory

collection of the past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place

Memory misattribution

you remember most information about something accurately, but your memory also includes errors

Transience

forgetting what occurs with the passage of time

Proactive interference

situations in which information learned earlier impairs memory for information acquired later

Retroactive interference

situations in which information learned later impairs memory for information acquired earlier

Absentmindedness

Lapse in attention that results in memory failure

Blocking

failure to retrieve information that is available in memory even though you are trying to produce it (tip of the tongue)

Intelligence

Ability to direct one’s thinking, adapt to one’s circumstances, and learn from one’s experiences

Henry Goddard

was one of the first to measure intelligence

Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon

developed the first intelligence test to identify children who needed remedial education

Charles Spearman

theorized that the general factor of intelligence is varying in many degrees

Factor analysis

statistical technique that explains a large number of correlations in terms of a small number of underlying factors

Two-factor theory of intelligence

Spearmans theory suggesting that every task requires a combination of a general ability (g) and skills that are specific to the task (s)

Stanford-Binet abd Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

Most widely used intelligence tests today

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)

Intelligence test for children

Robert Sternberg

Argued for three kinds of intelligence analytic intelligence (problem solving), creative intelligence (novel solutions), and practical intelligence (everyday)

Fluid intelligence

Ability to see abstract relationships and draw logical inferences (raven’s progressive matrices test)

Crystallized intelligence

Ability to retain and use knowledge that was acquired through experience

BITCH-100

Black Intelligence Test of Cultural Homogeneity

Stereotype threat

May create fear of confirming negative beliefs others may hold

Flynn Effect

The discovery that the average intelligence test score rises about .3% every year, discovered by James Flynn

Developmental psychology

Study of continuity and change across the life span (infancy, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood)

Infancy

Stage of development that begins at birth and lasts between 18-24 months, newborns have poor sight, but respond to visual stimuli, can mimic facial expression within the 1st hour of life

The development of sophisticated behaviors follows two rules

Cephalocaudal rule and proximodistal rule

Cognitive development

emergence of the ability to think and understand (how the physical world works, how their mind represents it, and how other minds represent it)

Jean Piaget

Created stages of cognitive development, but children can acquire abilities earlier than proposed

Sensorimotor

(Birth-2 years) Infant experiences world through movement and senses, develops schemas, begins to act intentionally, and shows evidence of understanding object permanence

Schemas

Theories about or models of the way the world works

Assimilation

process by which infants apply their schemas in novel situations

Accommodations

process by which infants revise their schemas in light of new information

Object permanence

idea that objects continue to exist, even when they are not visible

Preoperational

(2-6years) Child acquires motor skills but does not understand conservation of physical properties, child begins this stage by thinking egocentrically but ends with a basic understanding of other minds

Childhood

stages of development that begins at about 18-24 months and lasts until adolescence

Egocentrism

failure to understand that the world appears differently to different observers

Theory of mind

idea that human behavior is guided by mental representations

Concrete operational

(6-11years) child can think logically about physical objects and events and understand conservation of physical properties

Formal operational

(11 years and up) child can think logically about abstract propositions and hypotheticals

Harry Harlow

conducted attachment experiments with a baby rhesus monkey

Secure attachment

rooted in trust and marked by intimacy

Avoidant attachment

marked by discomfort over, or resistant to, being close to others; an insecure attachment style

Anxious attachment

marked by anxiety or ambivalence; an insecure attachment style

Lawrence Kohlberg

developed a theory of three stages in moral development (pre conventional stage, conventional stage, post conventional stage)

Preconventional stage

(childhood)Morality of an action is primarily determined by its consequences for the actor

Conventional stage

(Adolescence)Morality of an action is primarily determined by the extent to which it conforms to social rules

Post conventional stage

(adults) morality of an action is determined by a set of general principles that reflect core values

Adolescence

Period of development that begins with the onset of sexual maturity (about 11-14 years of age) and lasts until the beginning of adulthood (about 18-21 years of age)

Puberty

Bodily changes associated with sexual maturity

Adolescence interest in sex

often precedes knowledge about it (high teen pregnancy, lacking sex education in the U.S.)