Verb Complementation, Phrasal Verbs, Grammatical Functions & Voice

What are the main aspects in English

• Perfect → views an action as complete

• Continuous/progressive → views an action as ongoing

• Simple → does not encode completion or ongoingness

What are the five major English phrase types?

Phrase	Head
NP	Noun
VP	Verb
AdjP	Adjective
AdvP	Adverb
PP	Preposition

What are the characteristics of phrases?

Every phrase

• Has an obligatory headword

• May contain one or more modifiers

• Is named after its headword

• Every headword in a sentence represents a new phrase

What is a verb complement

A phrase that is required or licensed by a particular verb type to complete its meaning

• typically a nominal/NP, but can be a PP

Examples

• The zookeeper likes his alligator. → NP complement

• He sidles along the wall. → PP complement

What is a verb adjunct

An optional modifying phrase that provides additional information about the action

Adjuncts can be:

• NP

• PP

• AdjP

• AdvP

• Clauses

What is the key difference between complements and adjuncts?

• Complement = required/licensed by the verb

• Adjunct = optional additional information

What is a phrasal verb

a multi-part lexical verb consisting of:

Verb + particle (+ particle)

Phrasal verb examples

• give up

• find out

• get on with

• put up with

• brush up on

• look up to

What is a particle in a phrasal verb

An element that may look like a preposition or adverb but functions as part of the phrasal

• The particle does not retain its normal independent meaning

What is the structure of a phrasal verb?

Verb + particle (+ particle)

Examples:

• give + up

• get + along + with

• put + up + with

The whole combination forms one lexical unit.

Why are phrasal verb meanings often non-transparent

The meaning of the whole phrasal verb cannot necessarily be predicted from the meanings of its individual

For example:

• put = place

• up = toward a higher place

• with = accompanied by

But:

put up with = tolerate/endure

The meaning is therefore semantically non-compositional.

What is an important characteristic of phrasal verbs?

A phrasal verb often has a single-word verb equivalent

Examples:

• put up with → tolerate

• find out → discover

• carry on → continue

• check out → inspect

Why are phrasal verbs phrasal common in everyday speech

• Phrasal verbs are particularly common informal/everyday English

• Single-word equivalents are often more formal

Can one phrasal verb have multiple unrelated meanings

Yes.

For example, put up can mean:

• Build → They put up a tent.

• Offer/contribute → They put up $5.

• Accommodate → They put him up for the night.

• Suggest/propose → He put up great ideas.

• Show skill/resistance → They put up a great fight.

The meaning depends on the context.

How can you distinguish a phrasal verb from a verb + preposition

Look at:

• meaning

• movement of the particle/preposition

• whether the element heads a PP

What is the structure of a phrasal verb?

The verb and particle form one lexical item with one meaning.

The particle can often be moved.

Example:

• Look up the word.

• Look the word up.

What is the structure of a verb + preposition?

• The preposition heads a PP

• The preposition cannot be moved

Example

• I walked up the stairs

• *I walked the stairs up

Classify "The coat was left behind on the desk."

Verb + preposition

• "Behind" functions as part of a prepositional structure rather than as a phrasal-verb particle.

Classify "The zookeeper must check out such incursions."

Phrasal verb

• check out = inspect

What does verb complementation describe?

Verb complementation specifies

• what type of nominal can occur before the verb

• what can or must follow the verb

• the number and type of complements a verb permits

What are the main verb categories

Lexical verbs

• eat

• think

• write

Auxiliary verbs

• be

• have

• do

• could

 

How many complements can a verb permit

A verb may

• require no complement

• require one obligatory complement

• require two complemets

• allow one complement to be contextually dropped

Can verb complements be different phrase types

Yes.

NP complement:

• The zookeeper likes his alligator.

PP complement:

• He sidles along the wall.

Some verbs take both:

• She wrote a letter to her mother.

Are all phrases after a verb complements?

No.

A verb can be followed by multiple optional adjuncts.

Example:

The cat chased the mouse over the table through the house into the backyard with a knife yesterday.

• the mouse = complement

• Everything else = adjuncts

What is transitivity

a property of a verb describing whether it requires a complement/object

• intransitive

• transitive

• ambitransitive

• ditransitive

• complex transitive

What is an intransitive verb

Does not take an NP complement/direct object

• The cat snored

Can intransitive verb have adjunct

Yes, they have any number of optional adjuncts

• The cat snored loudly for hours

What is a transitive verb

Requires one complement, often an NP that is affected by the action

• Cats chase mice

Can transitive verbs take PP complements?

Yes.

Some transitive verbs require a PP rather than an NP.

Example:

• The man sidled along the ledge.

Incorrect:

• *The mice sidled.

• *The mice sidled the cheese.

What is a Direct Object (DO)?

The NP that undergoes or is affected by the action

• Cats chase mice

What is an oblique object

PP complement, often expressing direction or location

• The man sidled along the ledge

What is an ambitransitive verb?

Can be used either:

• Transitively → with a DO

• Intransitively → without a DO

Transitivity depends on the context

How does context affect ambitransitive verbs?

The listener can infer missing information from context

Transitive:

• She ate the food.

Intransitive:

• She has already eaten.

The same verb can therefore have different transitivity depending on whether the object is present.

How do you analyse an ambitransitive verb when the DO is present?

If a DO is present, the verb is being used transitively.

Example:

• She ate the food.

→ Transitive

How do you analyse an ambitransitive verb when the DO is absent?

If the DO is absent, the verb is being used intransitively.

Example:

• She has already eaten.

→ Intransitive

What is a ditransitive verb?

A ditransitive verb requires two complements.

• DO

• INDO or Oblique PP

What is the structure of a ditransitive sentence?

The cat gave the mouse a cake.

• the mouse = INDO

• a cake = DO

What is the Direct Object in a ditransitive sentence?

the thing undergoing the action.

Example:

The cat gave the mouse a cake.

• a cake = DO

What is the Indirect Object?

the person/thing that receives or benefits from the action.

Example:

The cat gave the mouse a cake.

• the mouse = INDO

• a cake = DO

How can the two complements of a ditransitive verb change position?

Compare:

• The cat gave the mouse a cake

  • INDO = the mouse

  • DO = a cake

• The cat gave a cake to the mouse

  • DO = a cake

  • Oblique = to the mouse

→ The for changes from NP to PP, but the recipient remains functionally equivalent to the INDO

What are the two major functional categories of a clause?

• Subject

• Predicate

What is the difference between formal and functional categories?

• Formal = what something is structurally

  • NP

  • VP

  • PP

  • AdjP

  • AdvP

• Functional = what something does in the clause

  • Subject

  • DO

  • INDO

  • Adjunct

  • Oblique

Why is "phrase" a formal category rather than a functional category?

"Phrase" describes the structural/lexical shape of an element.

It does not tell us what job the element performs in a clause.

For example, an NP can function as:

• Subject

• Direct Object

• Indirect Object

What is the traditional definition of a grammatical subject?

The person or thing:

• Doing the action, or

• That the sentence is about.

However, this definition is not always reliable because subjects do not necessarily perform the action, particularly in passive sentences.

What are the characteristics of the grammatical subject?

• obligatory in the english clause

• usually occurs immediately before the verb

• is an NP or nominal clause

• agrees with the verb in number

How can you identify the grammatical subject using question formation?

An auxiliary verb can move before the subject to form a yes/no question.

Statement:

• She is studying grammar.

Question:

• Is she studying grammar?

"She" = subject.

What is a Direct Object (DO)?

Traditionally, the DO is the person or thing affected by the action of the verb.

Example:

• The cats ate their food.

"their food" = DO.

What forms can a Direct Object take?

A DO can be:

• NP

• Nominal clause

Examples:

• They like it.

• They like the subject.

• They like eating the food.

Where does the DO usually occur?

The DO normally follows the verb directly.

Example:

• He gave a letter to the cat.

With ditransitive verbs, the DO can occur in different positions:

• He gave the cat a letter.

• He gave a letter to the cat.

What cannot normally be inserted between a verb and its DO?

Another phrase cannot normally be inserted between the verb and direct object.

Incorrect:

• *The bird ate for breakfast seed.

 

How can the DO be identified through passive voice?

The DO of an active sentence can move into the subject position in a passive

Active:

• The bird ate the insect.

Passive:

• The insect was eaten by the bird.

"The insect" was the DO in the active sentence and becomes the grammatical subject in the passive.

What is an Indirect Object (INDO)?

The INDO is the person or thing that receives or benefits from the action.

It occurs with ditransitive verbs.

Examples:

• The chef made us a cake.

• She sent her friend an email.

What form does an INDO usually take?

When directly following the verb, an INDO is an NP.

Example:

• The chef made us a cake.

If it is moved, it commonly becomes a PP.

• The chef made a cake for us.

The PP form is often called an oblique object.

When can an INDO occur?

An INDO can only occur when a DO is also present.

Example:

• He gave money to the cause.

The DO is "money."

Can the DO or INDO be omitted?

Yes, particularly when the missing information is understood from context.

Examples:

• He gave [ ] to the cause yesterday.

• He gave [ ] yesterday.

The context can supply the missing information.

What is a complex transitive verb?

A complex transitive verb requires:

DO + obligatory oblique complement

Example:

• I put a vase on the floor.

What are the characteristics of complex-transitive obliques?

They:

1. Are usually locative PPs

2. Follow the DO

3. Are obligatory

Example:

• I put a vase on the floor.

• *I put the vase.

What are other complex transitive constructions?

Some verbs take two obligatory post-verbal elements without being standard ditransitives.

Example:

• He found the grammar difficult.

There is an underlying relationship:

• He found the grammar to be difficult.

The omitted "to be" can be considered a zero clause.

What is an adverb

A lexical word belonging to a major word class

• quickly

What is an AdvP

a formal phrase headed by an adverb

• degree adverb + adverb

• very quickly

What is an adverbial

A functional category describing a phrase or clause that functions like an AdvP by providing additional info about an event or sentence

What information can VP adverbials provide?

Flashcard: What forms can VP adverbials take?

Form	Example	Meaning
AdvP	He spoke early	Time
PP	He spoke in the auditorium	Place
NP	He spoke this morning	Time
Clause	He spoke when he arrived	Time

Can VP adverbials move?

Yes.

They can often move to the beginning of the sentence.

Example:

• He spoke when he arrived.

• When he arrived, he spoke.

What is a sentence adverbial?

Modifies the whole sentence, rather than just the verb

• often adds the speaker’s perspective or contextual info

• On Saturday, we went to the movies.

What is a disjunct?

a sentence adverbial expressing the speaker/writer’s attitude, opinion, or evaluation of the sentence

• Sadly, grammar is not taught much these days.

• On the plus side, we have 203.

What functions do primary auxiliaries perform?

They can:

1. Carry tense

2. Contribute to aspect formation

Tense:

• He is being silly.

Progressive:

• They were eating.

How are modal auxiliaries structured?

Modal + bare infinitive

• You must like chocolate.

The modal expresses speaker attitude toward the action.

How do auxiliaries form aspect?

Progressive:

be + V-ing

• She is going.

• They are going.

Perfect:

have + V-en

• He has eaten.

• We have eaten.

 What is voice?

Describes the relationship between the grammatical subject and the action

• Passive

• Active

What is the active voice?

In an active sentence, the grammatical subject typically represents the doer/agent.

Example:

The aardvark ate the ants.

• Subject = the aardvark

• DO = the ants

What is the passive voice?

The DO of the active sentence moves into the subject position

• The aardvark ate the ants.

Passive:

• The ants were eaten by the aardvark.

What happens to the original subject in a passive?

The original subject can:

1. Be completely omitted

The ants were eaten.

OR

1. Be restored using a by-phrase

The ants were eaten by the aardvark.

The by-phrase is therefore optional.

How is the passive formed?

The basic passive structure is:

BE + V-en

Examples:

• was greeted

• were eaten

• is written

• has been completed

What happens to the lexical verb in the passive?

The lexical verb changes to its past participle (-en) form, while BE carries the tense.

Active:

• The zookeeper greeted the alligator.

Passive:

• The alligator was greeted by the zookeeper.