JMU Psyc 160 - Exam 1 - Kondrad

Psychodynamic perspective

-the approach based on the view that behavior is motivated by unconscious inner forces over which the individual has little control (blanket term for all psycho theories)

-Psychoanalytic theory, psychosexual theory, psychosocial theory

Psychoanalytic theory

-Freud

-Suggests unconscious forces act to determine personality and behavior

-Three aspects of personality (Id, Ego, Superego)

Id aspect of personality

Raw, unorganized, inborn part of personality that is present at birth, operates on pleasure principle, goal to maximize satisfaction (sexual, hunger, aggression)

Ego aspect of personality

Part of personality that is rational and reasonable, operates on reality principle, in which instinctual energy is restrained in order to maintain safety and integrate into society

Superego aspect of personality

Represents a person's conscience, incorporating distinctions between right and wrong, which begins when a child is taught

Psychosexual theory

-Freud

-A series of stages that children pass through in which pleasure, or gratification, focuses on a particular biological function and body part

(shifts from mouth, anus, genitals)

Fixation

behavior reflecting an earlier stage of development due to an unresolved conflict, thumb sucking

Psychosocial theory

-Erikson

-The approach that encompasses changes in our interactions with and understandings of one another, as well as in our knowledge and understandings of one another, as well as our knowledge and understanding of ourselves and members of society

-Developmental change occurs in eight stages

Behavioral perspective

-the approach suggesting that the keys to understanding development are observable behavior and outside stimuli in the environment

-Classical conditioning, operant conditioning, behavior modification, social-cognitive learning theory

-Watson

Classical conditioning

-a type of learning in which an organism responds in a particular way to a neutral stimulus that normally does not bring about that type of response

-ex. bit by dog, afraid of all dogs

Operant conditioning

-Skinner

-a form of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened by its association with positive or negative consequences

-ex. a child is praised for good grades so they want good grades

Reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

Behavior modification

the use of operant conditioning techniques to bring about desired changes in behavior

Social-cognitive theory

-Bandura

-Emphasizes learning by observing the behavior of another person, called a model

Cognitive perspective

-The approach that focuses on the processes that allow people to know, understand, and think about the world

-How ways of thinking affect behavior

-Includes Piaget's theory of cognitive development, information processing approaches, cognitive neuroscience approaches

Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

Growth in children's understanding of the world can be explained by two basic principles, assimilation and accommodation

Assimilation

Process in which people understand a new experience in terms of their current stage of cognitive development and existing ways of thinking

Accomodation

Refers to changes in in existing ways of thinking in response to encounters with new stimuli or events

Information Processing Approach

a perspective on understanding cognition that divides thinking into specific steps and component processes, much like a computer

Cognitive neuroscience approaches

the approach that examines cognitive development through the lens of brain processes

Humanistic perspective

-Rodgers

-The psychological view that assumes the existence of the self and emphasizes the importance of self-awareness and the freedom to make choices, emphasizes free will

-Self-actualization as primary goal in life

Self-actualization

a state of self-fulfillment in which people realize their highest potential in their own unique way

Contextual Perspective

-Considers relationships between individuals and their physical, cognitive, personality and social worlds

-Includes the bioecological approach and sociocultural theory

Bioecological approach

-Bronfenbrenner

-The perspective suggesting that five different levels of environment simultaneously influence individuals

-Microecosystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, chronosystem

Microsystem

Everyday, immediate environment in which children lead their daily lives including teachers and parents, where traditional work in child development takes place

Mesosystem

Connects the various aspects of the microsystem, binding children to parents and students to teachers, acknowledges direct influences that bring us together

Exosystem

Represents broader influences, encompassing societal institutions such as local government, the community, schools, places of worship, and the local media

Each institution has impact on how microsystem and mesosystem operate

Macrosystem

represents larger cultural influences such as society in general, types of government, religious systems, and political thought

Chronosystem

Includes the way the passage of time, including historical events and more gradual changes

Sociocultural theory

-Vygotsky

-Emphasizes how cognitive development proceeds as a result of social interactions between members of a culture

-Development is a reciprocal transaction between the people in the child's environment and the child

Evolutionary Perspective

-The theory that seeks to identify behavior that is a result of our genetic inheritance from our ancestors

-Draws heavily from field of ethology

Ethology

-Konrad Lorenz (experimented on newborn geese)

-Examines the ways in which our biological makeup influences our behavior

Behavioral genetics

The study of the effects of heredity on behavior, seek to understand how we might inherit certain behavioral traits and how the environmental influences whether we actually display such traits

Scientific method

the process of posing and answering questions using careful, controlled techniques that include systematic, orderly observation and the collection of data

Theories

explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest, providing a framework for understanding the relationships among an organized set of facts or principles

Hypothesis

A prediction that can be tested

Two major categories of research

Correlational and experimental research

Correlational research

-Research that seeks to identify whether an association or relationship between two factors exists using correlation coefficient

-Types of studies include naturalistic observation, case studies, survey research, and psychophysiological methods

Correlation coefficient

-Mathematical score representing the strength and direction of a relationship between two factors

-Positive correlation means two factors increase with each other, represented by positive 1

-Negative correlation means as one factor increases the other factor decreases, represented by negative 1

Naturalistic observation

The observation of a naturally occurring behavior without intervention in the situation, employs ethnography (understanding cultures)

Case studies

Involve extensive, in-depth interviews with a particular individual or a small group of individuals, recording cases through diaries

Psychophysiological methods

-Focus on the relationship between physiological processes and behavior

-Examples include electroencephalogram (electrical activity in brain), CAT scan (structure of brain), and MRI (brain activity)

Experimental research

Research designed to discover casual relationships between various factors

Experiments

-Experimental or treatment group is exposed to treatment variable being studied, and a control group is not

-Uses IV and DV

Independent variable

The variable that researchers manipulate in an experiment

Ex. Does increased red bull make you run faster? IV is amount of red bull

Dependent variable

The variable that researchers measure and expect to change as a result of manipulation

Ex. Does increased red bull make you run faster? DV is speed of running

Sample

the group of participants chosen for the experiment

Field study

a research investigation carried out in a naturally occurring setting

Laboratory study

a research investigation conducted in a controlled setting explicitly designed to hold events constant

Theoretical research V Applied research

-Theoretical research is designed specifically to test some developmental explanation and expand scientific knowledge

-Applied research meant to provide practical solutions to immediate problems, findings are applied to a particular setting and problem

Longitudinal research

Research in which the behavior of one or more participants in a study is measured as they age

Cross-sectional studies

Research in which people of different ages are compared at the same point in time

Reliability and Validity

Reliability - consistent and repeatable

Validity- measures what intended (operational definitions)

Sequential studies

Researchers examine a number of different age groups at several points in time

Cohort effect

effect observed in a sample of participants that results from individuals in the sample growing up at the same time

Practice effects

Improvements in performance resulting from opportunities to perform a behavior repeatedly so that baseline measures can be obtained.

Baseline measures

Data that establishes the current or initial conditions in a process improvement project, prior to the application of solutions.

IRB (Institutional Review Board)

any academic research needs to be proposed to their IRB, review for ethical violations and/or procedural errors

Informed consent

an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

Phenotype

physical characteristics of an organism

Genotype

An organism's genetic makeup, or allele combinations.

Allele

An alternative form of a gene.

Huntington's disease

A human genetic disease caused by a dominant allele; characterized by uncontrollable body movements and degeneration of the nervous system; usually fatal 10 to 20 years after the onset of symptoms.

Genetic counseling

the process of testing and informing potential parents about their genetic makeup and the likelihood that they will have offspring with genetic defects or hereditary diseases

Screening tests

Tests designed to identify certain harmful or potentially fatal disorders that are not otherwise apparent at birth.

Diagnostic tests

Laboratory tests that assist in the diagnosis of a specific disease

Zygote

The new cell formed by the process of fertilization

Genes

The basic unit of genetic information

DNA

The substance that genes are composed of that determines the nature of every cell in the body and how it will function

Chromosomes

Rod-shaped portions of DNa that are organized into 23 paris

Types of twins

Monozygotic (identical twins) and dizygotic (fraternal twins)

Twin and adoption studies

Research into hereditary influence on twins, both identical and fraternal, who were raised apart (adopted) and who were raised together

Dominant/recessive traits

*Gene Traits* are represented in *pairs* with an *upper case letter* for the dominant trait *(A)* and a *lower case letter* for the recessive trait *(a)*. Occur in pairs *(AA, Aa, aa)*. Half the genetic material is from each parent, Offspring's traits are represented in combinations.

-*Dominant*: Trait only requires *one gene* of a gene pair for it to be expressed in a *phenotype*.

-*Recessive*: Requires both genes in order to be manifested.

*DD and dd* are *Homozygous Pairs*

*Dd* is a *Heterozygous Pair*

Polygenic

Describes a characteristic that is influenced by many genes

Down syndrome

a disorder produced by the presence of an extra chromosome on the 21st pair; once referred to as mongolism

Relatedness

The probability that two people share the same allele from a common ancestor.

Fragile X syndrome

A disorder produced by an injury to a gene on the X-chromosome, producing mild to moderate mental retardation

Sickle Cell Anemia

A blood disorder that gets its name from the shape of the red blood cells in those who have it, poor appetite, stunted growth, yellow eyes

Tay-Sachs Disease

A disorder that produces blindness and muscle degeneration prior to death, there is no treatment

Klinefelter's Syndrome

A disorder resulting from the presence of an extra X chromosome that produces underdeveloped genitals, extreme height, and enlarged breasts

Lifespan development

the field of study that examines patterns of growth, change, and stability in behavior that occur throughout the entire life span

Physical development

development involving the body's physical makeup, including the brain, nervous system, muscles, and senses, and the need for food, drink, and sleep

Cognitive development

development involving the ways that growth and change in intellectual capabilities influence a person's behavior

Personality development

development involving the ways that the enduring characteristics that differentiate one person from another change over the life span

Social development

the way in which individuals' interactions with others and their social relationships grow, change, and remain stable over the course of life

Cohort effects

A group of people born at around the same time and place

Continuous change

gradual development in which achievements at one level build on those of previous levels

Discontinuous change

development that occurs in distinct steps or stages, which each stage bringing about behavior that is assumed to be qualitatively different from behavior at earlier stages

Critical period

a specific time during development when a particular event has its greatest consequences and the presence of certain kinds of environmental stimuli is necessary for development to proceed normally

Sensitive period

a point in development when organisms are particularly susceptible to certain kinds of stimuli in their environments, but the absence of those stimuli does not always produce irreversible consequences

Maturation

the predetermined unfolding of genetic information

Temperament

Patterns of arousal and emotionality that represent consistent and enduring characteristics in an individual

Multifactorial transmission

The determination of traits by a combination of both genetic and environmental factors in which a genotype provides a range within which a phenotype may be expressed

Fertilization

The process by which a sperm and an ovum join to form a single cell

Placenta

a conduit between the mother and fetus, providing nourishment and oxygen via the umbilical cord

Stages of prental development

Germinal stage, embryonic stage, fetal stage

Germinal stage

the first and shortest stage of the prenatal period, which takes place during the first two weeks following conception

Embryonic stage

the period from two to eight weeks following fertilization during which significant growth occurs in the major organs and body systems

Fetal stage

The third stage of prenatal development, lasting from two (eight weeks) months through birth.

Fetus

a developing child, from eight weeks after conception until birth