APES All Formulas and Equations from all units

ALL OF THE APES FORMULAS AND EQUATIONS. (atleast the ones needed to pass the exam)

Respiration

Respiration

C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O
chemical reaction in which glucose and oxygen are turned into water, carbon dioxide, and energy

Photosynthesis

6CO₂ + 6H₂O + sunlight → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂

six carbon dioxide molecules and six water molecules, are converted by light energy captured by chlorophyll (implied by the arrow) into a sugar molecule and six oxygen molecules, the products.

Combustion

Hydrocarbons (C_xH_y) + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O

the reaction of a hydrocarbon (only C and H) with oxygen gas (O2) The reactants are CxHy and O2. The products are CO2 and H2O.

Ocean Acidification

CO₂ + H₂O ↔ H₂CO₃ ↔ H⁺ + HCO₃^-
CO2 reacts with water to form carbonic acid, Carbonic acid can then dissociate into bicarbonate (HCO3), Bicarbonate can then dissociate into carbonate ions (CO3),

Photochemical Smog Formation

NO_x + VOCs + heat + sunlight → smog
NOx from Fossil fuel combustion gets broken down by sunlight into NO+O-. The O- reacts and bonds with O3(Ozone) and makes tropospheric O3, the NO reacts with VOCs and creates photochemical oxidants. Then the O3 and photochemical oxidants bond to make photochemical smog.

Stratospheric Ozone Depletion

CFC’s+UV = Cl-

Cl- + O3 = ClO + O2

ClO + O- = Cl- +O2

CFCS are broken down by UV rays into Cl-. The free Chlorine bonds Ozone and makes ClO + O2. The cycle then repeats and chlorine doesn’t allow the free O2 molecule to bond another oxygen atom.

Stratospheric Ozone Formation

O- + O2 =O3

O3+UV=O- +O2

A free O(oxygen) atom bonds with an O2 (oxygen molecule) and makes stratospheric ozone. The O3 is then broken apart by UV rays into O2 and O- and the free O- bonds to another O2 and creates more O3. The cycle Repeats.

Tropospheric Ozone Formation

ultraviolet sunlight breaks apart an oxygen molecule to form two separate oxygen atoms. In the second step, each atom then undergoes a binding collision with another oxygen molecule to form an ozone molecule.

Acid Rain Formation (NOx)

NOx + H2O = HNO3 (Nitric Acid)

NOx from fossil fuel combustion is released into the atm. and forms chemical reactions with water to create Nitric Acid (HNO3)

Acid Rain Formation (SOx)

SOx + H2O = H2SO4(Sulfuric Acid)

SOx from coal combustion enter the atm. and chemically reacts with water to form Sulfuric Acid(H2SO4).

Population Density

pop./area

Rule of 70 (Doubling time)

70/percent(%) growth rate

population growth rate %

Births - Deaths/Number of people x 100

global population growth rate %

CBR-CDR/10

rate of change

ending-starting/ending time-starting time

percent change

ending-starting/starting x100

Net Primary Productivity

GPP-R=NPP

the rate at which energy is stored as biomass by plants or other primary producers and made available to the consumers in the ecosystem.

Gross Primary Production

GPP=R+NPP

GPP = Total solar energy captured by plants − Energy lost due to respiration by plants

the total chemical energy produced from sunlight through the photosynthesis of plants

Fuel Efficiency

Distance traveled/unit of fuel consumed

10% Rule

Rule states roughly 10% of energy transfers between trophic levels in a food chain, the rest is lost to heat

Half-Life

the time required for a quantity (of substance) to reduce to half of its initial value

LD50

dose/weight

Lethal dose (LD50) is the amount of an ingested substance that kills 50 percent of a test sample

Population Growth Rate

(births -deaths+immigrations-emigration)/population x 100

or (crude briths-crude deaths)/10

(emigrations=LEAVING, immigration is COMING/ENTERING POP)

Population Change

(Births-deaths+immigration-emigration)/population

(emigrations=LEAVING, immigration is COMING/ENTERING POP)

Crude Death Rate

(total deaths/ total pop) x 1000

Crude Birth Rate

(total births/total pop) x 1000

Death rate

death rate(%)/100

Death rate (%)

(total deaths/total populations) x 100

Birth rate

birth rate (%)/100

Birth rate (%)

(total births/total population) x 100

Nitrogen Fixation

N2 to NH3

bacteria changes free nitrogen gas into ammonium (nitrogen form)

nitrification

NH3 to NO3

Produces nitrates from ammonia

Ammonia

NH3

Ammonium

NH4