Bio 112 Exam 2

Macroevolution

Evolutionary change above the species level.

Origin of first cells

-complex due to not having the same conditions as early earth

-earth was hot, mostly oceanarium, volcanoes, low O2.

What were the easiest fossils?

prokaryotes

what followed mass extinction?

Major radiation

evo-devo

evolutionary developmental biology

exaptation

the process in which existing structures take on new functions through descent with modification (ex: porcupine had hair and adapted to spikes)

regulatory genes

control gene expression

heterochrony

Evolutionary change in the timing or rate of an organism's development. (ex: chimp skull vs. human skull)

Paedomorphosis

a changing in timing produces a sexually mature adult with juvenile features (ex: axolotl is a baby salamander but can still reproduce)

Homeotic genes

Genes that determine basic features of where a body part is.

viruses-origin

there are no fossils so we do not know when they were created. Only proof we have is viral footprint.

Who discovered viruses?

Ivanovsky: worked with TMV (Tobacco mosaic virus), poured through a filter and something smaller than bacteria was still left behind, considered toxic.

Twort: (1935), isolated and described a virus

When was the electron microscope invented?

1930s

virus size/imaging

20-400 nm, too small for light microscope. They contain DNA, RNA, and protein.

Virus structure

acellular

no metabolism

no growth

must be inside host cell to replicate- obligate intercellular parasite

can infect all life forms

helical viruses

hollow, cylindrical capsid

Ebola- flexible

TB-non flexible

enveloped virus

A virus enclosed within a phospholipid membrane derived from its host cell.

(Herpes family)

Icosahedral viruses

Capsids forming 20 triangular faces and 12 corners. (adenovirus)

Complex virus

A virus with a complicated structure, such as a bacteriophage.

Bacteriophage

A virus that infects bacteria

DNA viruses

enter the host cell's nucleus and are replicated and assembled there. Uses RNA polymerase for transcription of mRNA and our ribosomes.

RNA viruses

Single stranded, looks like mRNA so it can go directly to host ribosomes to make proteins.

Retroviruses

use reverse transcriptase to copy their RNA genome into DNA

entry inhibitors (fusion inhibitors)

bind to viral particles and prevents HIV entry into healthy cells.

reverse transcripts inhibitors

blocks ability to turn to DNA

intergrade inhibitors

Blocks proviral DNA from getting into your genome.

Protease inhibitors

inhibits the ability to cut long proteins into functional smaller proteins.

Prions

"protein gone bad" a protein that was folded wrong and cause other proteins to follow.

Capsules/ slime layers

carbs and proteins allow cells to stick to surfaces.

Qurum sensing

chemicals sent out in the slime layer to communicate with other cells.

Fimbria

A short, hairlike proteins of a prokaryotic cell that helps it adhere to the substrate or to other cells. Used to make biofilm

Biofilm

bacterial cells adhering to surfaces in a protective slime allowing the resistance to antibiotics and cleaners.

chemotaxis

Cell movement that occurs in response to chemical stimulus

phototaxis

movement in response to light

geotaxis

movement in response to gravity

structure of prokaryotic bacteria

no membrane bound organelles

no organelles

have ribosomes

no nucleus

no microtubules

invagination for aerobic cellular respiration

Gram staining

+ = dark purple (one cell plasma membrane, periplasmic space, and cell wall made of peptiodoglycon)

- = light pink (one cell plasma membrane, 2 periplasmic spaces, one cell wall, and one outermsmbrane made of lipoplyoacharides).

Which of these plastids do not contain pigment?

a. chloroplast: photosynthesis

b. chromoplast: pigment synthesis

c. luekoplast: storage of metabolic things

answer: C

how do bacteria gain genetic diversity if they can't have sex?

-mutation: one mutation can change phenotype

-tranformation: Griffith Experiment

-transduction: transfer of gene by a virus, DNA carried by bacteriophages

-conjunction: "sex" pills, no offspring are made

Plasmid

A small, circular section of extra DNA that confers one or more traits to a bacterium and can be reproduced separately from the main bacterial genetic code. Can add diversity.

Binary fission

bacteria cells splitting rapidly. Growth is limited by food, moisture, crowding.

endospores

A resistant, dormant structure formed inside of some bacteria that can withstand harsh conditions

Griffith's experiment

genetic material could be transferred between dead bacteria and living bacteria

Apicomplexans

A type of parasitic protozoan. Some apicomplexan cause serious human disease like malaria. Life cycle is mostly haploid.

Ciliates

A protozoans that move by waving tiny, hair-like organelles called cilia.

unicellular

aquatic

asexual

feed on bacteria in algae

no cell wall

oomycytes

contains 5 different groups of filamentous, multinucleac, absorptive cells.

Archeaplastida

Includes both Red Algae & Green Algae

This group gave rise to land plants!

This diverse group is also important as photosynthetic organisms in aquatic systems, including Volvox & "sea weeds"

paraphyletic group

green algae, no land plants.

red algae

marine algae in which the chlorophyll is masked by a red or purplish pigment (phycotheran), helps builds reefs.

Chlorophytes

part of green algae; aquatic, creates oxygen, (phytoplankton-primary producers in food chain)

Volvox

colonial green algae

Ameobozoans

Slime molds, tubulinds, entameobas, move and feed by pseudopodia, no cell wall.

Tubulinds

Amoeba proteus, feeds on other bacteria

Entramoebas

parasite on animals, spreads by durable cyst (ex: Entamoeba histolytic- kill and digest lining of intestines).

Heterotrophic

An organism that cannot make its own food. (absorptive)

Chytrids

aquatic and produce flagellated spores; they were the first fungi, contain hyphae.

yeast

unicellular fungi

mycelium

main fungus body, made of hyphae, often underground or within host.

hyphae

tubular cells with rigid cell walls contains chitin. Absorptive heterotrophs and feed off organic materials.

chitin

polymer that is made of N-acetylgulcosamine.

septate in hyphae

the cross walls (coenocytic), allow for rapid cytoplasmic streaming.

Haustorium

A hypha of a parasitic fungus that enters the host's cells, absorbing nutrition directly from the cytoplasm without disrupting the cell wall.

Which organelle that is an essential compound of all other eukaryotic cells is functionally absent in diplomonads and parabasalids and no longer works?

mitochondria

Euglenozoans, online the diplomats & parabasalids, have...?

a flagellum made of crystalline rod

which of the listed protists can produce red tide?

dinoflagellates

which of the listed protists makes a cell wall out of silica?

diatom

In fungi, the combined processes of plasomgamy and karyogamy are equivalent to what in a plant or animal?

fertilization

a colonial eukaryotic organism is composed of cells:

that are sharing resources

what is the function of Cumbria in bacteria?

adhere to surfaces

which of the following things are true about movement in bacteria?

can be active and directed toward or away from stimulus.

small rings if DNA in bacteria are called which of the following?

plasmids

which of the things below describes a heterotrophic organism?

consumes organic material for its carbon

a prokaryote that does both photosynthesis and oxygen-dependent cellular respiration is:

a photo autotroph and obligate aerobic

which of the following describes a class of antivirals called protease inhibitors?

drugs that inhibit an enzyme which would normally cut a long protein into smaller functional proteins.

which microscope must be used in order to see viral particles?

electron microscope

which of the following is not true about viruses

they fall into the classification of prokaryotes.

What is a sporangium?

Multicellular organ on the sporophyte that produces spores in order to begin the lifecycle of a gametophytes.

Gametophyte is how many N?

1N

Diploid

2N

archegoniophore

protects the sporophytes from the enviornment. (liverwort)

When are sperm and egg produced in the life cycle of bryophytes?

during antheridia, sperm is dispersed and fertilizes to archegonia-egg.

give 3 examples of bryophytes

mosses, liverworts, hornworts.

What 2 organisms make up lichen?

fungus and algae/cynobacteria.

True or false: Bryophytes and lichen are pioneer species?

true

Name 2 examples of vascular, seedless plants.

Lycophytes (club mosses), monilophytes (ferns)

Why is vascular tissue important?

allows plant to be taller, larger, and produce more sporophytes.

phloem?

located in the leaves, carries sugar and organic products

xylem?

located in truck and roots, carries water and minerals.

tracheids?

strengthens the walls combined with lignin. Only fungus can break this down.

what becomes the dominant structure that we see today?

2N

tropism?

A growth response of a plant toward or away from a stimulus

microphyll leaves?

1 vein (1 vascular bundle) - lycophytes

megaphyll leaves

multiple veins in leaves - ferns and seed plants.

Why are seedless vascular plants important?

during the Paleozoic era, they increased food supply, lowered CO2, increased O2. Allowing animals to thrive. (carbon-fixation)

all caterpillar moth larvae (but not adults) are able to produce silk. If a species of moth is able to produce silk as a winged adult, we could call this a case of...

paedomorphosis

the basic make up of a virus consists of which of the following things?

RNA or DNA and a protein coat

Describe the structure of streptococci

linear chain of cocci cells

Describe the structure of staphylococcus

clusters of cocci cells

Assuming a Gram is positive bacteria had a capsule layer, what layers would you encounter if you went from the outside of the bacteria towards the middle?

Capsule, cell wall, periplasmic space, cell membrane.

Assuming a Gram is negative bacteria had a capsule layer, what layers would you encounter if you went from the outside of the bacteria towards the middle?

capsule, outermsmbrane, periplasmic space, cell wall, periplasmic space, cell membrane.