geo220 - chapter 3; uneven development and global inequalities Cartes | Quizlet

Development

A process that brings about changes in economic prosperity and quality of life

- an improvement in the material conditions of life

- measured traditionally by economic criteria, but increasingly in more holistic ways including health, education, and so on.what

are the terms more and less developed relative or absolute

relative!

- classification done by the UN based on socio-economic status

more developed

All of Europe and Northern America (Canada and US - NOT Mexico or the Caribbean) , Australia, New Zealand and Japan

less developed

all of the countries

new.. least developed countries.

categorized by especially

- low incomes

- high economic vulnerability,

- poor human development indicators.

- High levels of Mortality and Fertility

- Low levels of literacy

- Low industrialization

- Often face political problems = stem from a colonial history that was replaced by authoritarian governments and is often exacerbated by ethnic or other rivalries

defining development

Traditionally economic and social development have been measured by the absolute size and power of a country's economy.

Gross Domestic Product (GDP):

A monetary measure of the market value of all goods and services produced within a country over a given time period (usually one year).

- Most commonly used measure of economic development

- Macroeconomic indicator

-it is also believed to serve as a reliable surrogate measure of social development in health

Education

overall quality of life.

Gross National Product (GNP):

A monetary measure of the market value of all goods and services produced within a country, plus those produced by individuals or corporations (of that country) operating elsewhere, over a given time period (usually one year).

Gross national Income (GNI):

A monetary measure of the market value of goods and services produced within a country, plus income from investments abroad, over a given period (usually one year).

a countries economic and social development measures through:

1. GDP

2. GNP

3. GNI

Ethnocentrism

A form of prejudice or stereotyping that presumes that one's own culture is normal and natural and that all others are inferior.

- definitions of development are frequently ethnocentric (this is problamatic becuase the macroeconomic factors do not reveal anything about the poor majority)

The World Development Report:

an annual publication of the World Bank

measures development on the basis of selected economic criteria, grouping countries into 4 categories —according to gross national income (GNI) per capita.

1. low income

2. lower-middle income

3. upper-middle income

4. high income

problem:

developmental bias: suggests that, as countries become more technologically advanced, they can—and should—increase their GNI

- however this measure is a useful and easily available indicator that is correlated with other non-monetary measures of quality of life.

Developmentalism

An analysis of cultural and economic change that treats each country or region of the world independently in an evolutionary manner; an approach that assumes that all areas are autonomous and will proceed through the same series of stages of development.

major problem with measuring development

While comparisons between one country and another can be made using aggregate macroeconomic measures like GDP, one of the biggest challenges is that standards of living (the local costs of goods and services) VARY between countries, and especially between more and less developed areas

GDP per capita figure for Canada, which is used as a proxy measure for the average income of Canadians, CANNOT easily be compared with the GDP for Ecuador or anywhere else for that matter, because of variations in the quantities of goods and services that can be purchased with that average income.

SOLUTION: purchasing power parity (PPP)

purchasing power parity (PPP)

A tool that measures the relative cost of a common market basket of goods and services for comparing cost of living between countries; useful in conjunction with aggregate macroeconomic measures of economic activity such as gross domestic product (GDP) per capita and gross national income (GNI) per capita.

- confirms that economic development differences exist

Human Development Report

published by the UN every year since 1990.

Intents to complement the economic measure of development such as GDP, GNP, GNI

It is an alternative conceptualization of development

Focuses on countries ability to meet basic human needs

Uses a wide variety of data to construct a : HDI

Human Development Index (HDI)

A numerical measure of how well basic human needs are being met; a composite index incorporating health (life expectancy), education (years of schooling), and income (gross national income per capita)

ranks countries in relation to one another does not measure absolute levels of development

3 primary elements of development (HDI)

1. Health: measured by LE

2. Education: measured by the mean # of years of schooling children receive

3. Income: measured by GNI per capita

does economic growth mean improvements in health or education or in addressing the issue of poverty

NO! as shown by HDI

has the worlds average HDI increased or decreased overtime

increased

is there a direct link between economic prosperity and human development

NO

the wrong interpretation to why different levels of development and related inequalities exist

differences is races and their inherent inequality

2 reasons why levels of development vary (explaining global inequalities)

1. shape of the continents (overtones of environmental determinism)

2. World systems and dependency theories

Environmental Determinism

A view that cultures, and human behaviours, are directly shaped by physical environmental circumstances; contrasted with possibilism

Possibilism

A view that human decision-making and adaptability, and not the physical environment, are the primary agents of cultural change; people and cultures pursue a course of action that they select from among a number of possibilities; contrasted with environmental determinism.

Civilization

A culture with agriculture and cities, food and labour surpluses, labour specialization, social stratification, and state organization

1. Shape of the continents

the different continental shapes have been crucial b/c latitudinal (east - west) extent allows agricultural technologies to spread great distance over areas of SIMILAR CLIMATE

- whereas cultural diffusion of agriculture on continents that lack this latitudinal extent is necessarily more limited.

- the major axis of Eurasia is east-west while the major axes of the Americas and of Africa are north-south.

because agricultural technologies are the precursor to the rise of civilizations, this basic geographic circumstance is the ultimate factor in beginning a chain of causation that eventually leads to some societies' ability to spread globally and dominate other societies

- help understand why European culture was able to move overseas

Colonialism

The forceful appropriation of foreign territory; usually established and maintained through military and political structures, also creates unequal cultural and economic relations; usually involves the displacement of Indigenous populations; a term usually reserved for the European variant of the process (1500-1945), but could apply to other cultures.

2. World Systems and Dependency Theories

first idea is a precursor to this one

colonial relationship is important because it has led to dependence. The countries that were colonized became dependent on their colonizers, and recently they have become more dependent.

- so the less developed countries lack power, including being able to control and direct their own affairs

- world dependency theory relates to this becuase it addresses the interconnectedness of these relationships

Dependence

The forceful appropriation of foreign territory

- usually established and maintained through military and political structures

- creates unequal cultural and economic relations

- usually involves the displacement of Indigenous populations

- a term usually reserved for the European variant of the process (1500-1945), but could apply to other cultures.

World systems Theory

A set of ideas centred around the notion that the world is an interdependent system of countries linked together by an economic and political competition that shapes relations between core (more developed), semiperipheral (less developed), and peripheral (least developed) countries.

why does underdevelopment exist?

- core and the semi periphery for profit

dependency theory

A theory that connects disparities in levels of development to the relationship between dependent and dominant states

- linked to foriegn investment and international trade

- creates two division

1. dominant (core)

2. dependent countries (periphery)

- product of colonialism

why does underdevelopment exist?

- core exploits and underdevelops the periphery for access to cheap resources and labour

- role of MNCs is critical b/c they exploit the poor for profit

3 principle zones of the world

1. Core: these states benefit from this situation, as they receive the surpluses produced elsewhere.

The principal core states : Britain, France, the Netherlands, the US, Germany, and Japan—the countries where world business and financial matters are centred.

2. Semi-Periphery: consists of countries that are partially dependent on the core, for example, Argentina, Brazil, and South Africa.

3. Periphery: The periphery consists of those countries that are dependent on the core and while technically no longer colonies, they in effect remain colonized.

Least developed belong in this latter group

is the world system static or dynamic

dynamic BUT it is really hard for a state to move out of the periphery

- dependency goes both ways (aka developed countries reliant on TNC for employment)

system is rigidly dynamic

primary significance of inequalities

- food insecurity and hunger

- population migration and the refugee crises,

- the differential effects of natural disasters

- disease on people in the more and less developed worlds.

3 criteria for famine as decided by the UN

1. At least 20 % of the population has access to fewer than 2,100 kilocalories of food a day

2. Acute malnutrition exists in more than 30 % of children.

3. Two deaths due to malnutrition per 10,000 people, or four deaths per 10,000 children, occur every day.

area of the world most vulnerable to famine

sub-saharan africa

primary role of famines caused by...

political circumstances such as:

- War

- Policy Failures

- Bad government

thus famines occur becuase of access to food issues

the problem is not global food production but rather ....

distribution

Undernutrition:

A dietary condition in which an individual consumes a quantity of food insufficient to sustain normal and healthy life; sometimes referred to as undernourishment.

- quantity

Malnutrition:

An umbrella category of dietary conditions, including undernutrition and overnutrition, in which an individual's dietary needs are not being met, through too little food, too much food, or the wrong balance of foods (nutrients, vitamins, protein, and so on).

- Quality

past explanations for food shortage problems

1. Overpopulation: root cause of food problems often said to be related to the # of people in the world BUT evidence suggests that there are not too many people

2. Inadequate Distribution of available Supplies: Most countries have the transportation infrastructure to guarantee the appropriate movement of food, but other factors prevent satisfactory distribution.

3. Physical or human circumstances: such as flooding and war. Circumstances such as these obviously aggravate existing problems, but they CANNOT be considered root causes.

recent explanations for food shortage problems

1. Political and Economic Explanations

- The population involved in agriculture in less developed world declining

- Majority of those remaining CANT compete the the commercial farms that benefit from technological advances.

- Majority also has lost control over their own production =larger global cause

- These arguments suggest that the cause of the world food problem is the peripheral areas' dependence on the core area.

- Complex politics and colonialism and capitalism are essential causes.

2. The Role of Bad Government

- Bad governments are a cause of food problems.

- Many say hunger has NOTHING to so with food production and EVERYTHING to do with poverty

6 principle causes of famine.

1. with bad government front and centre.

With 4 closely related to bad government

1.a prolonged period of underinvestment in rural areas

2. refugee problems stemming from political instability related to conflict

3. HIV/AIDS and other diseases depriving families of productive members and damaging family structures

4. continued population growth because of high birth rates.

6. sixth cause is bad weather.

does providing food aid help?

problems:

- This is not surprising, given our observation that the ultimate cause is political (which no amount of aid is likely to change) and that factors such as drought are proximate causes.

- Aid is often directed to urban areas, even though the greatest need is usually in rural areas

- Much donated food goes to governments, THEN SOLD for profit.

- Aid tends to Decrease food prices in the receiving country = decreasing need for people to grow crops and increasing their dependence.

- not effectively distributed

- aid funds are commonly sent to countries known to be governed by potentially corrupt politicians

- foreign companies are typically quite content to exploit local ignorance in order to maximize their profits.

helps but is not a solution to famine

first major refugee movement

- After WW2

- In response to changing political circumstances.

Refugee

An individual forced to flee their home country in the face of persecution (religious, ethnic, political, etc.) or other threats to safety, such as war, natural disaster, or political instability.

THE NATURE OF THE REFUGEE PROBLEM

When significant refugee crises emerge = the source country in such chaos = difficult both to provide information to individuals about places of safe refuge and to track the movements of the individuals = thus the estimate of total number of refugees varies (lack accuracy)

United Nations High Commissioner of Refugees (UNHCR

most reliable source of information on refugee #

3 other classes of "persons of concern"

1. Asylum seekers

2. Returnees

3. Internally displaced persons (IDPs)

Asylum seekers

people who have left their home country and have applied for refugee status in some other country

Returnees

are refugees who are in the process of returning home (the desired goal for most)

Internally displaced persons (IDPs)

are people who flee their homes but remain within their home country; unlike refugees, they do not cross an international boundary.

Internally Displaced Person (IDP)

An individual forced to flee their home in the face of persecution (religious, ethnic, political, etc.) or other threats to safety (war, natural disaster, political instability, etc.); unlike a refugee, they do not leave their home country.

THE REFUGEE PROBLEM TODAY

Today: 67.7 million : including refugees, asylum seekers, and those who are internally displaced

These figures likely underestimate the full extent of the problem.

patterns of refugee problem today

1. Demographically balanced.

- No large variation between gender and age

2. Most move to adjacent countries.

- can result in some very complicated regional patterns when the same nation is both a country of asylum for some refugees and the home from which others have fled.

3. Some refugees are able to move to more developed countries.

- Turkey being the principal country of Asylum.

4. Refugee and related problems = greatest in less developed world.

- Problem intensify by the fact that few asylum countries have the infrastructure to cope with the additional pressures that refugees bring

- most of the top-ranked countries receiving refugees are in the LESS developed world.

Syria

- Biggest Refugee crisis of our time.

- Similar amount internally displaced and living outside Syria

- Germany has been the MOST welcoming = taking nearly half the refugees.

rise of ______ in europe

populism

Populists:

blame migrants for rising crime rates and unemployment, (despite a lack of evidence)

3 solutions to managing the refugee flow

1. Voluntary Repatriation

2. local settlement

3. resettlement

1. Voluntary Repatriation

- UNHCR favour this

- occurs when refugees decide to return home on their own.

- NOT feasible for most: b/c the circumstances that caused them to leave has not changed.

2. Local Settlement

- Local S in a neighboring host country

- Is Difficult in areas that are poor and lack resources to support in long term.

- NOTE: Whatever the reason behind a refugee movement, nearby areas regularly face similar problems and hence are rarely able to offer solutions.

3. Resettlement

Resettlement in another country is an option for only a select few.

today what is the switch to mananging refugee flow

Attacking the underlying causes of refugee problems.

Problematic because:

- causes often a complex mixture of political, economic, and environmental issues for which NO SIMPLE simple solutions are available

- refugee problems are also greatest in parts of the less developed world that already face huge challenges.

- A key first step in solving the many refugee and related problems is working toward national political stability and, of course, greater levels of development.

natural phenomena have a disproportionate impact on what parts of the world?

*People in LESS developed countries MORE likely the victims to natural disasters and communicable disease.*

Natural Disasters

term to refer to physical phenomena like: floods, storms, earthquake , volcanic eruptions AND their human consequences.

do all natural disasters acc become disasters?

NOT all become disasters = to understand why a natural event becomes a human disaster, we need to understand the larger cultural, political, and economic framework

The less developed world suffers most in this area

- Adverse cultural, political, and economic conditions combined = place increasing numbers of people at serious risk in the event of any environmental extreme

- In many cases, surging population growth in many less developed countries = causes more poor construction standards, poor planning and infrastructure, and inadequate medical facilities, = makes these countries especially vulnerable to natural hazards.

Earthquakes, Volcanic Eruption and Tsunamis

- Planet is a furnace

- Earthquakes & volcanic eruption regular occurrence

- Today- volcanic eruptions are LESS harmful than earthquakes b/c better ability to predict them.

- The unpredictability of earthquakes contributes to the devastation of these events, as does the fact that we so often live or build cities on fault lines.

Hurricanes, typhoons, and Tropical Cyclones

a tropical storm that begins over the ocean and can lead to a natural disaster if and when it makes landfall.

Also regular natural phenomena BUT can be fatal when making landfall near populated areas.

how many people die from natural disasters depend on what circumstances

political and economic circumstances.

Malaria

- Carried from person to person by mosquitos prime example

- 90 % of all case and death in Africa

- Found large areas of South and Southeast Asia AND Latin America

- Areas of endemic malaria = are the areas of lower economic and social development; in this case, the two go hand in hand.

- It can be both PREVENTED (b/c closely related to weather conditions) and TREATED (mosquito nets).

Endemic

constantly present in pop

2 recent diseases outbreaks

1. Ebola:

- West Africa: 2013-2015

2. Polio

- Papua New Guinea : 2018

- Spread link to drinking water contaminated with fecal matter carrying the virus

- It is hoped that continued development (as seen lately) = result in greater access to clean water, vaccination & health clinic = go long way in reducing the risk of future outbreaks.

health of population varies along a number of different dimensions (age, gender, socio-economic status, etc.)

Low-income countries (the world's least developed)

- seven of the top ten causes of death in 2016 were from the categories of communicable, maternal, neonatal, and nutritional conditions, which includes things like diarrheal diseases, malaria, tuberculosis, HIV/AIDS, and maternal and infant deaths.

- these are all causes of death that are preventable and treatable

Next-highest income group (lower-middle):

- only four of the ten leading causes of death are from these same categories, = suggesting that with some modest gains in development comes greater treatment and prevention of those diseases that are most easily addressed

Highest-income countries

- almost all the main causes of death are non-communicable diseases, or in other words are degenerative (cancer, heart disease, stroke, and so on)

what does the signofgance of a countries debt depend on?

its economy

in developed countries where does the cost of servicing foreign debt account for

exports (most of their income goes to paying off debt)

Industrialization

A process of economic and social change that transforms a society (country) from largely agricultural to industrial

debt in the less developed world

their external debt is mostly money owed to international lending agencies and commercial banks in the more developed world

1970s

- high lending to less developed countries by the commercial banking sector, development agencies, and governments in the more developed world

1980s

- Brought a recession, with rising interest rates, declining world trade, and steadily increasing debt services costs.

Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC)

Initiative = to assist countries encumbered by debt.

- Countries with unsustainable debt burdens (meeting certain conditions) = eligible for debt relief

- launched in 1996

Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative (MDRI)

launched to provide additional assistance (additional to HIPC)

reslults of intiatives to help less developed countries with debt

many of the least developed countries have begun to emerge from under an overwhelming debt burden and can begin to invest in social development programs.

- BUT of course, not that easy = some countries are governed poorly = the benefits of new development are pocketed by the few at the expense of the many.

- Loans intended to help impoverished countries can have quite the OPPOSITE effect (this relates to the importance of the bottom-up approach).

obvious distinction between more and less developed world:

degree of industrialization

- Many countries in latter group not experience an industrial revolution.

- industrialization could lead to employment for the unemployed or rural poor.

- industrialization could also demonstrate:

1. economic independence

2. encourage urbanization,

3. help to build a better economic infrastructure

4. reduce dependence on overseas markets for primary products

dependency theory logic

according to this theory a major obstacle is the legacy of former colonial rule.

Former colonies can find it difficult to move beyond the lingering effects of this attitude.

1. Most countries in the less developed world have neither the necessary infrastructure nor the capital required to develop it.

2. Furthermore, fundamental social problems resulting from limited educational facilities do not encourage the rise of either a skilled labour force or a domestic entrepreneurial class.

3. Finally, the domestic markets in many of these countries lack the spending capacity to make industrial production economically feasible.

reasons other than the dependency theory logic that countries find it difficult to achieve industrialization?

for the lack of industrial and economic development in sub-Saharan Africa have focused on its low population density relative to other major world areas, the longer distances between major settlements, and the incongruous political partitioning of Africa by the colonial powers which has resulted in many postcolonial states composed of deeply divided ethnic nations of different cultures and religions

Import Substitution

An economic strategy of domestically manufacturing goods that were previously imported, through the aid of protective tariffs (taxation on imported goods)

- often used as a stimulus for industrialization.

- Heavy industry = more difficult to develop, even though many of the raw materials come from the less developed world.

Structural adjustment Program (SAP)

Conditional loans provided to less developed countries by international development and lending agencies based in the more developed world (e.g. the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund), whereby money is contingent upon the country adopting free-market policies, privatizations, and deficit reduction (often through reduced social spending).

- top-down free-market economic policies

- Specifically,encouraged to open their economies to increase international trade, privatize previously state-owned enterprises, and reduce government spending (trickle down through the economy to benefit all the people) BUT most of the wealth stays with the elite and any trickle down effects are minimal also focusing on reducing government spending reduces the amount spent on social programs reducing social development

World Development Report

argues that the best way to promote long-term growth is to acknowledge the inevitability of uneven development and to develop policies that enable geographic concentration of economic activity

Challenging the assumption that economic activities are best spread spatially evenly, the report asserts that attempting to prevent concentration only results in limiting prosperity and, at the same time, stresses that development can still be spatially inclusive through government promotion of economic integration. The report explains uneven development in terms of differences in population density, distances between places, and political and other divisions.

MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS

1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger.

2. Achieve universal primary education.

3. Promote gender equality and empower women.

4. Reduce child mortality.

5. Improve maternal health.

6. Combat disease.

7. Ensure environmental sustainability.

8. Develop a "global partnership for development."

- extreme poverty has been reduced by half

- BUT still need to work on: controlling disease, adressing gender inequality, managing the environment more sustainably, and reducing extreme poverty

sustainable development goals (at their core)

a universal call to action to:

- end poverty,

- protect the planet

- ensure that all people enjoy peace and prosperity.

17 sustainable development goals

End poverty.

End hunger.

Ensure good health and well-being for all.

Ensure quality education for all.

Achieve gender equality.

Ensure availability of clean water and sanitation.

Ensure access to affordable and clean energy.

Promote decent work and economic growth.

Promote industry and innovation, and build infrastructure.

Reduce inequalities.

Create sustainable cities and communities.

Ensure responsible consumption and production.

Take urgent action to combat climate change.

Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas, and marine resources.

Protect, restore, and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems.

Promote peace, justice, and strong institutions.

Strengthen and revitalize partnerships to achieve the goals.

what is at the center of economic and social development according to the UN

water

sustainable development goals environmental issues addressed:

1. preservation of ecosystems (land and water)

2. designing sustainable cities

3. fostering sustainable consumption behaviors,

4. addressing climate change in various ways including rethinking our use of fossil fuels for energy

best terms to use:

less developed

least developed

more developed

what is the best measure of human capital

education

geographical patterns of poverty

location:

- southern, equatorial locations

- rural not urban

Resources:

- extractive resources v.s. human resources/capital

- agricultural/minerals/forestry vs. education/data/financial

dominant economic activity

- primary (mostly agriculture) vs. secondary (manufacturing) or tertiary (services)

measures of development

- economic

- socio-demographic indicators (education, LE, infant mortality)

- environmental indicators (more recent phenomenon, access to water, air quality, etc. )

inequality adjusted HDI (IHDI)

- accounts for inequality within a country

- high values indicate more equality

- ideally the HDI and IHDI would be the same

a greater difference between IHDI and HDI would represent?

greater inequality within a country

gender based indicator

- gender inequality index (GII)

measures the level of inequality within a country as measured by

- reproductive health (women that die in childbirth) (BIGGEST IMPACT)

- empowerment (women in positions of power)

- labour market participation (women in the workforce)

a score between 0 (totally unequal) and 1.0 (totally equal)

environmental indicators

happy planet index

- ecological footprint

- experienced well being (score between 0-10 but very subjective)

- life expectancy (life expectancy at birth)