Mao's maintenance of power

What were the aims of education under Mao?

• Mass Literacy: Eradicate illiteracy, especially among peasants.

• Language Reform: Standardize Mandarin and introduce pinyin (1955).

• Higher Education: Develop universities and colleges to train a modern workforce.

What were the successes of education under Mao?

• Literacy rates rose from 20% (1949) to 70% (1976).

• National primary education system established by the mid-1950s.

• Pinyin standardized Mandarin, simplifying learning.

• Universities expanded significantly by 1958.

What were the failures of education under Mao?

• Cultural Revolution disrupted education (1966-1970), with 130 million youth stopping school.

• Fewer than 1% of the workforce had university degrees by Mao’s death.

• Only 11% of the population and 6% of CCP officials had education beyond age 16.

• Education became subservient to revolutionary goals, with students sent for "re-education" in rural areas.

What were the aims of healthcare under Mao?

• Patriotic Health Movements: Improve hygiene and eradicate diseases like dysentery and malaria.

• Medical Training: Train doctors and nurses for rural areas.

• Accessible Healthcare: Provide free medical services to peasants.

What were the successes of healthcare under Mao?

• Community efforts reduced endemic diseases and improved hygiene.

• 1 million barefoot doctors trained by 1973, providing basic healthcare for free.

• Improved access to healthcare in rural areas.

What were the failures of healthcare under Mao?

• Doctors were targeted as bourgeois elites during political campaigns.

• Medical training was deprioritized for political loyalty.

• Absurd practices: withholding anesthetics as "bourgeois luxuries."

• Barefoot doctors lacked training, and no comprehensive healthcare system was established.

How did the Cultural Revolution impact education?

• Education was devalued, with students rejecting traditional learning and ridiculing teachers.

• Schools and universities were disrupted, halting progress.

• Students were sent to rural areas for "re-education" instead of returning to school.

What were the key gains and losses in education under Mao?

• Gains: Increased literacy, standardized language, initial growth in higher education.

• Losses: Disrupted progress during the Cultural Revolution, devaluing of education, low levels of higher education attainment.

What were the key gains and losses in healthcare under Mao?

• Gains: Improved hygiene, disease prevention, and rural healthcare access through barefoot doctors.

• Losses: Political interference, insufficient infrastructure, and reliance on temporary solutions.

What is the summary of education and health under Mao?

• Both sectors saw early progress but were undermined by political priorities and the Cultural Revolution.

• Gains in literacy and disease prevention contrasted with losses in higher education and comprehensive healthcare development.

• Who was Lei Feng?

Lei Feng was a young soldier idolized for his selflessness and devotion to Mao, depicted as an ideal citizen embodying revolutionary virtues

Why was it hard to see through the indoctrination?

The indoctrination was pervasive, and dissent was dangerous. Mao's rhetoric was presented as morally and nationally essential, with no alternative views permitted.

What did Mao do to maintain the facade?

Mao isolated himself, avoided direct communication, and leveraged propaganda. His rare appearances and mysterious aura reinforced his godlike status.

Why did people stop thinking?

Fear and systematic indoctrination led people to self-censor and avoid even private unorthodox thoughts. Social pressure discouraged any deviation from loyalty to Mao.People were conditioned to suppress independent thought, fearing repercussions for dissenting views.

Why did Mao have issues with Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping?

Mao opposed Liu and Deng’s economic reforms, seeing them as capitalist deviations. Chang suggests that Mao used the Cult of Mao to regain authority and oppose their policies.

What was Mao’s emphasis on class struggle for?

Mao's focus on class struggle was a tool to maintain social control and justify harsh tactics against those he saw as counter-revolutionaries.

How was the cult of Mao created?

Through controlled information, constant propaganda, indoctrination of youth, and systematic portrayal of Mao as a moral savior, cultivating loyalty and adulation.

Two of Mao's pet peeves and expected reactions:

• Mao disliked bourgeois aesthetics like lawns and flowers; citizens were expected to eradicate these, associating them with decadence.

• He despised individualism, pushing people to self-criticize any personal thoughts that diverged from party lines.

How did the author feel when her thoughts conflicted with Mao’s?

She felt guilty and fearful, engaging in self-criticism and suppressing her own instincts. This reflects themes of self-censorship found in other subjects like psychology, where indoctrination influences identity and personal beliefs.

How did education and modernization impact women’s status?

Among the first Chinese women with Western education, some gained influence in politics and society, showcasing women’s potential for leadership.

How did women engage politically in 20th-century China?

• Ei-ling: Political strategist.

• Ching-ling: Revolutionary and Mao’s ambassador.

• May-ling: Diplomat influencing U.S.-China relations.

What was the significance of women’s visibility in politics?

Demonstrated that women could lead and excel in public and political spheres, inspiring future generations.

What drawbacks did elite women face in advancing gender equality?

• Privileged backgrounds distanced them from ordinary women’s struggles.

• Idealistic actions sometimes upheld patriarchal systems (e.g., Ching-ling’s loyalty to Mao, May-ling’s policies).

• Limited systemic impact despite individual achievements.

What is the overall conclusion about women’s progress in 20th-century China?

The sisters’ achievements highlighted individual potential but failed to foster systemic change. Their story emphasizes the need for reforms to achieve true gender equality.

Why did Mao implement the Cultural Revolution?

Mao's influence declined after the failed Great Leap Forward. He feared his legacy would fade like Stalin’s under de-Stalinization and sought to secure his position, eliminate opposition, and solidify ideological dominance.

Who were the Red Guards?

Mostly young students loyal to Mao, inspired by propaganda like his Yangtze swim. They enforced Mao's ideology, targeted "enemies," destroyed cultural sites, and carried the Little Red Book as a loyalty symbol.

What actions did the Red Guards take?

• Violently targeted "enemies" of Maoism.

• Humiliated, tortured, and murdered accused individuals.

• Destroyed cultural sites and renamed streets/buildings.

• Spread Mao's sayings and carried the Little Red Book.

What were the Four Olds?

• Old Culture

• Old Ideology

• Old Customs

• Old Traditions

  Mao and the Red Guards aimed to eliminate these to build a Maoist society free from historical influences.

What were the results of the Cultural Revolution?

• Massive chaos and destruction; ~1 million deaths.

• Scarred Chinese society and future generations.

• Strengthened Mao’s cult of personality.

• Though condemned in 1981, Mao’s legacy remained ingrained in Chinese communism.

What were women’s roles in Imperial China?

• Patriarchal society enforced by Confucian teachings (san gang).

• Subordinate to men, with limited roles outside the home.

• Arranged marriages and foot binding symbolized oppression.

What was Mao’s attitude toward women and marriage?

• Rejected arranged marriage at 14, condemning it as evidence of a corrupt system.

• Criticized arranged marriages as "indirect rape" and supported women’s emancipation.

• Later became inconsistent, as he was a notorious womanizer and the Communist Party remained male-dominated.

What reforms were introduced under the New Marriage Law (1950)?

• Abolished concubinage, arranged marriages, dowries, and bride-prices.

• Legalized divorce for men and women.

• Mandatory marriage registration.
  Challenges: High divorce rates led to restrictions, such as soldiers denying wives’ divorce requests.

What happened to women’s property rights under Chinese Communism?

• Women briefly gained land ownership during land redistribution.

• Collectivization abolished private property, erasing these gains.

How did women’s workforce participation change under Mao?

• Women in the workforce increased from 8% to 32% (1949-1976).

• Many women were assigned heavy labor unsuitable for their physical capacity.

What were the effects of collectivization on women’s domestic life?

• Communes introduced mess halls and communal childcare, reducing household duties.

• Propaganda celebrated these changes, but actual benefits were limited.

• Women lost autonomy and private property rights; family structures were undermined.

What challenges persisted for women in Mao’s era?

• Strong preference for male children persisted.

• Women in rural areas, especially Muslim regions like Xinjiang, faced violence and subordination.

• Women were underrepresented in politics (13% of Communist Party members).

How did the Great Famine (1958-1962) affect women?

• Women sacrificed their own food for children, leading to suffering and malnutrition.

• Extreme cases: child abandonment, wife-selling, and cannibalism.

• Families broke apart; divorce rates soared.

How did the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) affect women and families?

• Family loyalty was replaced by loyalty to Mao and the Communist Party.

• Children were encouraged to report relatives who clung to "old values."

• Traditional roles like motherhood were condemned, with communal living enforced.

What were the effects of population growth during Mao’s rule?

• Population nearly doubled, with Mao viewing growth as an asset.

• Later leaders imposed strict controls to address overpopulation.

What were the overall gains for women under Mao?

• Legal reforms granting freedom in marriage and limited property rights.

• Increased workforce participation.

What were the overall losses for women under Mao?

• Persistent societal prejudices and exploitation.

• Loss of property rights due to collectivization.

• Suffering during the Great Famine and Cultural Revolution.

• Limited political representation and tokenism in equality policies.

What was the PRC's stance on religion?

• Influenced by Marxism, religion was viewed as superstition used by ruling classes to suppress workers.

• Mao declared religion as "poison," comparing missionaries to Nazis.

• Religion was deemed unnecessary and escapist under worker-led power.

What actions were taken during the initial campaign against religion (1950)?

• Churches forcibly closed, properties seized or destroyed.

• Clergy abused; foreign priests and nuns expelled.

• Propaganda condemned religion via posters and loudspeakers.

Which religions were targeted during Mao's era?

• Chinese faiths (Buddhism, Confucianism).

• Major foreign religions (Christianity, Islam).

• Ancestor worship was condemned as superstition.

How were traditional ways and customs undermined?

• Rituals like wedding songs and festival dances were banned.

• Traditional life disrupted by collectivization policies.

• Agit-prop troupes replaced traditional storytelling with propaganda plays.

What were patriotic churches?

• State-controlled churches with clergy required to support the Communist regime.

• Conflict with the Vatican over state-appointed clergy, risking excommunication.

What happened to religion during the Cultural Revolution (1966-76)?

• Religion was denounced as part of the "Four Olds."

• Public worship and ceremonies were banned; clergy imprisoned.

• Global condemnation was dismissed by the PRC.

How was religion linked to regional independence concerns?

• Religion tied to nationalism in Tibet (Buddhism) and Xinjiang (Islam).

• Fear of separatist movements led to Han Chinese resettlement in these areas.

What were the cultural consequences of Mao's policies on religion?

• Systematic suppression of religious practices and traditional customs.

• Shift of allegiance from religion to the Communist Party and Maoist ideology.

• Deep-rooted faiths like Buddhism and Islam partially survived.

What were the key dates in Mao’s religious policies?

• 1949-76: Mao’s rule in the PRC.

• 1950: Campaign against religion begins.

• 1958-62: Collectivization disrupts rural religious life.

• 1966-76: Cultural Revolution intensifies persecution of religion.

What were the key themes of Mao’s religious policies?

• Religion as a tool of control and a challenge to Communist ideals.

• Cultural transformation and enforced conformity to Maoist values.

• Ongoing fear of religious-inspired separatism in border regions.

What were Mao's beliefs about culture?

• Culture was integral to society and a tool for control.

• Proletarian culture had to reflect the working class.

• Feudal and bourgeois culture were to be eradicated.

• Art and culture were to serve revolutionary purposes, not individual expression.

What was Jiang Qing’s role in reshaping Chinese culture?

• Appointed as the "cultural purifier of the nation."

• Tasked with eliminating the "four olds" (old ideas, culture, customs, habits).

• Enforced strict censorship and replaced traditional works with revolutionary opera-ballets.

• Commissioned works glorified the proletariat's struggle.

How did Jiang Qing enforce public conformity?

• Strict censorship banned non-revolutionary works.

• Western music and traditional Chinese opera were banned.

• Audiences feigned enthusiasm for revolutionary works out of fear.

How were artists and intellectuals impacted under Mao?

• Suppression of creativity: Artists were required to align with revolutionary ideals.

• Re-education and persecution: Sent to labor camps and subjected to brutal treatment.

• Traditional art forms and individual expression were labeled bourgeois and outlawed.

What happened to artistic creativity during the Cultural Revolution?

• Jiang Qing's policies created a decade of cultural stagnation (1966–1976).

• Innovation was stifled; artists produced only politically safe, uninspired works.

• Instead of a cultural renewal, existing culture was nearly destroyed.

How did some resist Jiang Qing's cultural policies?

• Deng Xiaoping criticized her rigid approach, suggesting culture should entertain as well as indoctrinate.

• Most intellectuals and politicians stayed silent, fearing persecution.

What were the broad consequences of Jiang Qing’s cultural policies?

• Strict conformity replaced creativity.

• Non-proletarian culture was eradicated.

• Cultural richness was lost, with intellectuals and artists silenced.

• A generation lost its cultural identity and heritage.

What key events defined the artistic wasteland under Mao?

• Cultural Revolution (1966–1976) led to a void in artistic and cultural expression.

• Censorship and propaganda dominated artistic production.

• The Cultural Revolution left long-lasting scars on Chinese society.

What is the summary of consequences of Mao’s cultural reshaping?

• Intense political correctness replaced creativity.

• Traditional and bourgeois art forms were destroyed.

• Society suffered from a loss of cultural identity and generational damage.

• 100 million people were affected by the Cultural Revolution’s cultural policies.