Human Growth and Cultural Diversity Practice Exam Review

Comprehensive flashcards covering Human Growth and Development, Social and Cultural Diversity, Relationships, Groups, Career Development, and Assessment from the provided exam review transcript.

Psychosocial stages

Psychological developmental stages created by Erik Erikson that encompass the entire life span.

Ego psychologists

Theorists like Erik Erikson who believe in man's powers of reasoning to control behavior and emphasize the role of the ego rather than the id.

Idiographic approach

The research approach used by Jean Piaget to create his four-stage theory of development.

Conservation

A Piagetian concept mastered in the concrete operations stage referring to the understanding that volume or mass remains the same regardless of a container's shape.

Concrete operations

The third Piagetian stage, occurring between ages 7 and 11 years, where a child masters conservation and reversibility.

Reversibility

The Piagetian notion that one can undo an action so that an object, such as a glass of water, can return to its initial shape.

Egocentrism

A characteristic of Piaget's preoperational thought stage where a child, for example, believes the rain is following them.

Heinz dilemma

A method used by Lawrence Kohlberg to assess an individual's level of moral development.

Identity crisis

A term originating from the work of Erik Erikson to describe a period of structural change in the ego during adolescence.

Preconventional morality

Kohlberg's first level of morality where an individual's behavior is guided by consequences such as rewards and punishments.

Zone of proximal development

A developmental concept pioneered by Lev Vygotsky.

Maturationists

Theorists like Freud and Erikson who believe that development is primarily driven by internal factors and biological instincts.

Bonding and attachment

Concepts most closely associated with the work of British psychiatrist John Bowlby.

Ethology

The study of animals' behavior in their natural environment, often associated with Konrad Lorenz.

Cephalocaudal

A developmental term meaning head to foot.

Visual cliff

An apparatus utilized by Eleanor Gibson to research depth perception in children.

Empiricists

Theorists who believe that development consists merely of quantitative changes.

Organicism

A developmental position that holds that strides in development are qualitative in nature.

Object permanence

The schema of permanency and constancy of objects which occurs in the sensorimotor stage from birth to 2 years.

Centration

The Piagetian concept of focusing exclusively on one feature (such as a clown's red nose) while ignoring others.

Animism

Attributes human characteristics to inanimate objects, a concept related to Piaget's preoperational period.

Generativity versus stagnation

Erikson's middle-age stage (ages 35 to 60) referring to the ability to do creative work, raise a family, and create a career.

Fixation

A term used by counselors to describe a client's development coming to a halt due to severe trauma in a psychosexual stage.

Hierarchy of needs

Maslow's theory postulating lower-order physiological and safety needs and higher-order needs such as self-actualization.

Equilibration

The Piagetian term for the balance between taking in new information (assimilation) and modifying cognitive structures (accommodation).

Contextualism

The principle that behavior must be assessed in the context of the culture in which the behavior occurs.

Prognosis

A counselor's statement regarding the probable outcome of a psychotherapeutic case.

Cognitive dissonance theory

A social psychology theory by Leon Festinger regarding cognitive consistency and the reduction of post-decisional tension.

Mores

Beliefs and social customs regarding the rightness or wrongness of behavior.

Emic

A culture-specific perspective in multicultural counseling, derived from the word phonemic.

Etic

A viewpoint derived from the term phonetic, suggesting that sounds and concepts remain the same across any language or culture.

Autoplastic

A method of coping where a client changes their own thoughts or behaviors to fit the environment.

Alloplastic

A method of coping where a client attempts to change the system or the environment.

Sleeper effect

The social psychology assertion that after a period of time, individuals forget the communicator but remember the message.

Superordinate goal

A cooperative goal attained only by working in a joint manner, which Muzafer Sherif used to reduce competition between groups.

Id

In Freudian theory, the part of the personality present at birth that operates according to the pleasure principle.

Ego

The executive administrator of the personality and the proponent of the reality principle.

Thanatos

The self-destructive or death instinct described in Freudian theory.

Topographical theory

Freud's conceptualization of the mind as unconscious, preconscious, and conscious.

Repression

According to Freudians, the most important automatic or involuntary ego defense mechanism.

Sublimation

An ego defense mechanism where an individual acts out an unconscious impulse in a socially acceptable way, such as an aggressive person becoming a boxer.

Reaction formation

An ego defense mechanism where a person unconsciously acts in the opposite manner of their true impulses.

Introjection

An ego defense mechanism where a client incorporates the values of another person (like a father) into their own thought patterns.

Organ inferiority

A concept central to Alfred Adler’s individual psychology.

Archetype

Material that makes up the collective unconscious passed from generation to generation, such as the persona or the shadow.

Negative reinforcement

The withdrawal of an aversive stimulus to increase the likelihood that a behavior will occur.

Extinction

A process in classical conditioning where the conditioned response disappears because the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

Premack principle

A procedure where a lower-probability behavior is reinforced by a higher-probability behavior.

Systematic desensitization

A form of reciprocal inhibition based on counterconditioning created by Joseph Wolpe.

SUDS

An acronym used in systematic desensitization for the subjective units of disturbance scale.

Logotherapy

A form of existential therapy created by Viktor Frankl meaning "healing through meaning."

Reality therapy

A counseling theory created by William Glasser that incorporates choice theory and focuses on the here and now.

ABC theory of personality

Albert Ellis's rational-emotive behavior therapy model where A is the activating event, B is the belief system, and C is the emotional consequence.

Retroflection

The Gestalt concept of doing to oneself what one would like to do to someone else, such as attempted suicide.

Person-centered approach

Carl Rogers's approach characterized by empathy, congruence, genuineness, and unconditional positive regard.

Risky shift phenomenon

The tendency for a group decision to be less conservative than the average group member's decision prior to group discussion.

Linking

The group leadership act of pointing out similarities between clients.

Blocking

The group leadership act of putting a halt to actions that might have a negative impact on other members.

Glass ceiling phenomenon

The barrier that prevents women from advancing to higher positions in the corporate world.

Trait-and-factor approach

An actuarial or matching approach to career counseling associated with Parsons and Williamson that matches worker traits to job requirements.

Life-career rainbow

A graphic used by Donald Super to represent his life-span theory of career development.

Appraisal

The process of assessing or estimating attributes.

Difficulty index

The percentage of individuals who answered a test item correctly.

Ipsative measure

A test format where the person must compare items to one another, preventing a direct comparison between two different test-takers.

Construct validity

The extent to which a test measures an abstract trait or psychological notion such as ego strength.

Intelligence quotient ($IQ$)

A numerical measure of intelligence expressed by the formula $\frac{MA}{CA} \times 100$.

Standard error of measurement ($SEM$)

A value that tells a counselor how accurate or inaccurate a given test score is.

Parsimony

The research principle of interpreting results in describing a phenomenon in the simplest way possible, also known as Occam's Razor.

Independent variable ($IV$)

The variable that the researcher manipulates or controls in an experiment.

Dependent variable ($DV$)

The variable that a researcher measures in an experiment to determine the outcome.

Type I error

An alpha error that occurs when a researcher rejects the null hypothesis when it is actually true.

Type II error

A beta error that occurs when a researcher accepts the null hypothesis when it is actually false.

ANOVA

An analysis of variance used when a researcher is comparing more than two groups to determine if significant differences exist.