Columbian Exchange

Transfer of goods, ideas, diseases, and people between the Old and New Worlds; drastically altered ecosystems, economies, and populations.

Columbian Exchange

Transfer of goods, ideas, diseases, and people between the Old and New Worlds; drastically altered ecosystems, economies, and populations.

Encomienda System

Spanish labor system that exploited Native Americans; led to widespread indigenous death and resistance.

African Slave Labor/Slave Trade

Foundation of the Atlantic economy; enslaved Africans became the primary labor force in the Americas

Pueblo Revolt (1680)

Native uprising in New Mexico against Spanish rule; temporarily drove Spaniards out and reshaped colonial policy.

First Great Awakening

Religious revival in the 1730s–40s; emphasized emotion and equality before God, challenging authority and fostering American identity.

Enlightenment Ideas

European intellectual movement promoting reason, liberty, and self-government; influenced revolutionary thinking.

Transatlantic Print Culture

Spread of ideas, pamphlets, and newspapers across the Atlantic; unified colonies and spread Enlightenment/revolutionary ideas.

Protestant Evangelicalism

Religious movement stressing personal salvation and activism; key in reform movements and shaping American religious identity.

Metacom’s War (King Philip’s War, 1675–76)

Native American resistance to English encroachment in New England; devastated native communities and reinforced colonial dominance.

Seven Years’ War (1754–63)

Global conflict between Britain and France; ended with British victory and colonial tensions due to war debts and new taxes.

Benjamin Franklin

Key figure in Enlightenment and diplomacy; helped gain French support during the Revolution and fostered American unity.

George Washington’s Military Leadership

Unified colonial forces, secured key victories in the Revolutionary War, and earned widespread respect that aided national unity.

Thomas Paine’s Common Sense

Pamphlet advocating independence from Britain; widely read and influential in rallying colonial support for revolution

Declaration of Independence (1776)

Document asserting American independence and Enlightenment ideals of natural rights; foundational to U.S. political identity.

Republican Motherhood

Idea that women should educate children in republican virtues; elevated women’s roles within the domestic sphere post-Revolution.

Articles of Confederation

First U.S. government framework; weak central power led to instability and need for a stronger Constitution.

Constitutional Convention (1787)

Meeting that produced the U.S. Constitution; resolved issues of federal power and representation.

Federalism

Division of power between national and state governments; key structure of the U.S. political system.

HAMMY

Separation of Powers/Three Branches

System to prevent tyranny by dividing power among legislative, executive, and judicial branches.

Anti-Federalists & Federalists

Debate over ratification of the Constitution; Federalists supported it, Anti-Federalists demanded protections for individual rights.

Federalist Papers (Hamilton & Madison)

Essays advocating for Constitution ratification; outlined principles of government and checks and balances.

Bill of Rights

First 10 amendments to the Constitution; guaranteed civil liberties and appeased Anti-Federalists.

Northwest Ordinance (1787)

Legislation organizing western territories; set precedent for expansion and banned slavery north of the Ohio River.

Andrew Jackson

Populist president known for Indian Removal, destroying the national bank, and expanding executive power.

Henry Clay

Politician behind the American System and key compromises; sought to unify the country through economic development.

National Bank/Internal Improvements

Controversial federal programs aimed at economic growth; supported by Whigs, opposed by Jacksonian Democrats.

Market Revolution

Transformation of the U.S. economy with increased industry, transportation, and regional specialization.

Second Great Awakening

Religious revival emphasizing personal salvation and reform; inspired social movements like abolition and temperance.

Seneca Falls Convention (1848)

First women’s rights convention; issued the Declaration of Sentiments demanding gender equality.

Temperance

Movement to reduce alcohol consumption; part of broader moral reform efforts tied to religion and domestic stability.

Abolition Movements

Efforts to end slavery; led by both Black and white activists like Frederick Douglass and William Lloyd Garrison.

Steam Engine/Interchangeable Parts

Key technological innovations that drove industrialization and improved efficiency in manufacturing.

Transportation Revolution

Expansion of canals, railroads, and roads; connected markets and fueled economic growth.

Manifest Destiny

Belief that the U.S. was destined to expand across the continent; justified territorial expansion and displacement of Native peoples.

Mexican-American War (1846–48)

Conflict over Texas and the Southwest; resulted in U.S. acquisition of vast territory and renewed slavery debates.

Free-Soil Movement

Political movement opposing slavery’s expansion into western territories; precursor to the Republican Party.

Abolitionists: African American & White

Diverse activists who fought to end slavery; included figures like Sojourner Truth, Frederick Douglass, and Harriet Beecher Stowe.

Compromise of 1850

Attempt to ease tensions over slavery; admitted California as free state, strengthened Fugitive Slave Act.

Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854)

Allowed popular sovereignty on slavery; led to violent conflict ("Bleeding Kansas") and collapse of party system.

Dred Scott Decision (1857)

Supreme Court ruling that Blacks weren’t citizens and Congress couldn’t ban slavery in territories; inflamed sectional tensions.

Republican Party

Founded in opposition to slavery’s expansion; became dominant anti-slavery party and elected Lincoln in 1860.

Lincoln’s 1860 Election

Triggered Southern secession; marked political realignment and imminent Civil War.

Emancipation Proclamation (1863)

Freed slaves in Confederate territories; reframed the Civil War as a fight against slavery.

Gettysburg Address

Lincoln’s speech affirming national unity and democratic ideals; redefined the war’s purpose.

13th/14th/15th Amendments

Abolished slavery, granted citizenship, and protected voting rights; reshaped legal foundations of American society.

Gilded Age

Era of industrial growth and political corruption; marked by economic inequality and labor unrest.

Government Subsidies: Railroads

Federal support enabled transcontinental railroads; spurred migration and national economic integration.

Laissez-Faire Policies

Minimal government interference in the economy; favored big business and contributed to labor exploitation.

Trusts and Holding Companies

Corporate structures used to monopolize industries; led to calls for antitrust legislation.

Pacific Rim Trade

Expansion of trade with Asia; linked U.S. economy to global markets, especially in China and Japan.

Sharecropping/Tenant Farming

Post-slavery labor system in the South; trapped freedmen in cycles of debt and poverty.

People’s Party (Populists)

Political movement of farmers and workers; demanded economic reforms like silver coinage and government regulation.

Labor Unions

Organizations like the AFL fought for better wages and working conditions; often clashed with industrialists.

Child Labor

Widespread in factories and mines; reformers pushed for restrictions amid concerns about exploitation.

Political Machines

Urban organizations that controlled votes and government jobs; often corrupt but helped immigrants integrate.

Immigration: S./E. Europe, Asia

New waves of immigrants reshaped American society; faced discrimination and sparked debates over assimilation.

Great Depression:

Severe economic downturn during the 1930s that led to massive unemployment and poverty.

Progressives / Progressive Amendments:

Reformers who pushed for changes including Prohibition (18th Amendment) and women's suffrage (19th Amendment).

New Deal:

Series of programs and reforms launched by FDR to combat the Great Depression.

Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal:

Focused on relief for the unemployed, recovery of the economy, and reform of the financial system.

Harlem Renaissance

Cultural and artistic explosion centered in Harlem celebrating African American culture.

Great Migration:

Mass movement of African Americans from the South to northern cities for jobs.

Red Scare

Fear of communism in the U.S., especially after WWI, leading to suppression of dissent.

WWI: neutrality to war – Wilson’s 14 Points

Shift from isolationism to involvement in WWI; Wilson's plan for peace and the League of Nations.

Treaty of Versailles / League of Nations:

Treaty ending WWI; League proposed by Wilson to maintain peace.

Pearl Harbor

Japanese attack on U.S. naval base in 1941; brought U.S. into WWII.

Japanese internment camps

Forced relocation of Japanese Americans during WWII due to fears of espionage.

Nativist & anti-immigration policies

Policies like the Immigration Act of 1924 that limited immigration from specific regions.

Spanish-American War / Philippines:

War that resulted in U.S. acquiring overseas territories like the Philippines.

WWII: homefront, mobilization, D-Day

Efforts by civilians and industry to support the war; major Allied invasion of Normandy in 1944.

Manhattan Project

Secret U.S. project that developed the atomic bomb during WWII.

Total war: WW2

National effort where civilian and economic resources are mobilized for war

Isolationism to engagement:

Shift in U.S. foreign policy from non-involvement to active participation in global affairs after the holocaust and WW2

Containment:

U.S. Cold War policy to stop the spread of communism.

Korea and Vietnam:

Wars fought to contain communism; Korea ended in stalemate, Vietnam ended in U.S. withdrawal.

Decolonization:

Former colonies gaining independence, often during the Cold War context.

Civil Rights Act 1964:

Landmark legislation banning segregation and discrimination.

Martin Luther King Jr

Civil rights leader advocating nonviolent resistance

Brown v. Board of Education:

1954 Supreme Court ruling that segregation in schools was unconstitutional.

detente

The easing of tensions or strained relations (especially between nations), as by agreement, negotiation, or tacit understandings

Lyndon Johnson’s Great Society:

Programs aimed at eliminating poverty and racial injustice.

Desegregation of armed services:

Truman's executive order to integrate the military in 1948.

Immigration laws 1965:

Ended national origins quota system, opening immigration to non-European countries.

Liberalism vs. conservatism:

Political ideology conflict over role of government in society.

Oil crises

1970s energy shortages due to Middle East conflicts and embargoes.

Military industrial complex:

Warning by Eisenhower of excessive influence of military suppliers on government.

Counterculture:

1960s movement rejecting traditional values, promoting peace and free expression.

Feminist and gay/lesbian movements:

Advocated for equal rights and societal recognition.

Sun Belt

Region in the South and West experiencing population and economic growth.

Baby boom

Post-WWII population increase leading to suburban expansion.

Suburbs. (Levitown)

Growth of residential areas outside cities, reflecting postwar affluence.

Vietnam: protests and debates

Public opposition to war intensified during late 1960s and early 1970s.

Environmental movements:

Emerged in 1960s/70s; concerned with pollution and conservation. Led to the Clean Air act and Clean Water Act

Ronald Reagan election 1980

Marked conservative resurgence; emphasized small government.

Reagan Cold War policies

Military buildup and aggressive anti-Soviet stance

End of Cold War / Gorbachev reforms

Soviet Union collapsed partly due to reforms like glasnost and perestroika.

September 11, 2001 attacks

Terrorist attacks leading to the War on Terror.

War on Terrorism

U.S. military campaigns in Afghanistan and Iraq to combat terrorism.

Cultural debates: immigration, gender, family:

Ongoing disputes over social values and diversity.