Romans and their World: Chapter 8-13 / Final

Marcus Aemilius Lepidus

The third member of the triumvirate and the weakest, both politically and personally, former consul and aristocrat, pontifex maximus after Caesar assassinated

Second Triumvirate

triumvirs for restoration of the state = Octavian, Antony, Lepidus,

**formally legal authority to make laws with senate or people, nominate magistrates, exercise jurisdiction without appeal - used proscriptions and confiscations to fund massive legions

divi filius

"divine Son," title for Roman emperors such as Augustus whose fathers were deified - demonstrates imperial cult

Scribonia

sister of Sextus Pompey's father-in-law, Octavian's wife whom he married in attempt to make a settlement with Sextus Pompey

Conference at Tarentum (37 BCE)

Octavian and Antony renewed Triumvirate and Octavian agreed to send 20,000 men to the E in exchange for keeping 120 of Antony's warships to fight off Sextus Pompey

***Octavian got ships immediately, but never fully completed his commitment to provide men

Battle of Actium (31 BCE)

Decisive confrontation of the Final War of the Roman Republic -- Octavian defeats Antony and Cleopatra

- Antony fled to Libya, Cleopatra to Alexandria

The following year, Alexandria fell to Octavian, Antony committed suicide, Cleopatra was captured and comitted suicide

Caesarion executed

First Settlement 27 BCE

Handed back all of his power to the S.P.Q.R. — Restores consular elections & powers to traditional magistracies — Granted proconsular power x 10 yrs & consented to remain consul — Octavian: responsible for Spain, Gaul, Cilicia, Cyprus, Syria, Egypt (until 22) = provinces in danger from invasion/ revolt = to be delivered to SPQR once stabilized — "Caesar" granted new name/ title: AVGVSTVS = "revered one" Semi-religious connotation

Livia Drusilla

third wife of Augustus after being married to Ti. Claudius Nero, one still birth w Augustus + no further children

- her child, Tiberius, from her first husband Ti. Claudius Nero = WOULD become emperor b/c Augustus had no either heirs

Res Gestae Divi Augusti

the funerary inscription of the first Roman emperor, Augustus, giving a first-person record of his life and accomplishments

principate

A term used to characterize Roman government in the first three centuries CE, based on the ambiguous title princept ("first citizen") adopted by Augustus to conceal his military dictatorship

princeps

August represented himself as "______" "leading figure" whereas in the past there had been many but now there was only 1

Second Settlement 23 BCE

Augustus needed to make formal authority more sweeping, less obtrusive

1) Augustus resigned consulship in summer 23, realized he didn't need it to retain authority, but kept provinces and imperium

2) imperium was made greater by the senate, superior to all other officials

3) tribunicia potestas

auctoritas

unofficial "influence" Augustus' was unmatched and he used it to reinforce official authority

maius imperium

greater than all others; Augustus was granted this when he gave up consulship during Second Settlement

tribunicia potestas

power of a tribune, given to Augustus during Second Settlement to be renewed annually till dead - made him sacrosanct, could summon Senate, could veto

**made him seem like a protector of ordinary citizens, he paraded this power rather than maius imperium

cursus honorum

the path of honor, to move up a level in the political sense; sequence of magistracies(high to low): censor, consul, praetor, quaestor(aedile and tribune are optional)

primus inter pares

"first among equals" Augustus chose to present himself as such because Caesar's assassination showed that it was unwise for the leader to present himself as a rex or dictator

Julio-Claudian Emperors

Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, Nero - ruled empire from 14-68 CE

Tiberius

son-in-law of Augustus who became a suspicious tyrannical Emperor of Rome after a brilliant military career (ruled 14 to 37 CE)

-was manipulated by Sejanus

- moved to Capri and conducted affairs away from Rome

- died and no one was that sad, though empire was generally bettered under him

Praetorian Guard

the military unit that served as the personal bodyguard of the Roman emperors

Sejanus

Praetorian prefect under Tiberius who manipulated Tiberius by convincing him to distrust his family members, pursuing marriage alliances into imperial family (all failed though), and being the sole communicator between Tiberius / Rome after he moved to Capri

- eventually is found out and executed after his plot to kill Caligula

Germanicus

nephew of Tiberius, father of Caligula, leader of Roman army who went quelled uprising of German troops and then fought along Rhine and against Parthians, but died of sickness perhaps poisoned by governor of Syria

-very popular with the people

Drusus the Younger

Son of Tiberius and his heir after the death of Germanicus in AD 19, but then died (allegedly poisoned by Sejanus)

Caligula (Gaius)

the grandnephew of Tiberius (ruled 37-41 CE); was a good ruler at first - wanted to restore Senate prestige, publish imperial budget, live up to popular father Germanicus - BUT became ill and erratic, ruled autocratically, wanted consulship for horse, wanted statue in Temple in Jerusalem for some reason, deposed King Ptolemy and King of Armenia = future issues

- killed by Praetorian Guard

Claudius

Roman Emperor after his nephew Caligula was murdered (ruled 41-54 CE), appointed 2 Praetorian Prefects + paid the guard well (understood the importance of the Guard, went to them immediately to get appointed), alienated the Senate, wanted to expand empire (invaded Britain, annexed Mauretania and Thrace - expansionism would lead to issues), was very popular with people but senators hated him

- killed by his own wife Agrippina the younger to put her son Nero in power

Nero

last Julio-Caludian emperor (ruled 56-68 CE), was pretty crazy (had mother, tutors killed), first to persecute Christians as scapegoat for great fire of 64, but mostly had good relationship w/ ppl because of actor, charioteer, singer

-mishandled revolts in Germany by Vindex and was eventually declared hostis by senate in 68 and subsequently committed suicide

Pisonian Conspiracy

plot to kill Nero planned by angry senators in 65 AD

-plot discovered and conspirators (Seneca, Lucan, Petronius) forced to commit suicide or be exiled.

Great Fire of Rome 64

Burned for six days in the city of Rome; Nero allegedly started the fire but then blamed on the Christians, began Christian persecution in the empire - backfired because tortures led to Christian martyrs and sympathy

First Jewish Revolt 66-73

broke out due to Roman mismanagement and Judaea's internal problems - Nero sent Vespasian to take command, his son Titus took over when Vespasian became emperor

-destroyed Jerusalem + great Temple

-decimated Judaea's population

-Jews prohibited from attempting to convert others but those born Jewish could still worship

**advanced Jewish diaspora + emphasized distinction between Jews and Christians

Year of Four Emperors 69

A year in the history of the Roman empire in which four emperors ruled in succession, also Civil War: Galba, Otho, Vitellius and Vespasian. emperors tried to kill their enemies and secure the Praetorian Guard - Vespasian eventually won

Galba

came from distinguished patrician family, governor of Hispania Tarraconesis when declared Princeps by Senate - greatly mishandled Rome + alienated army during brief rule - killed by Otho

Otho

first aided Galba during Year of Four Emperors, but then when Galba failed to name him as his successor he gained support of Praetorian Guard, killed Galba, used Praetorian Guard to force Senate/people to name him emperor

-was eventually defeated by Vitellius in N Italy

Vitellius

declared emperor by 8 regions on the Rhine, slowly made his way back to Rome as Galba then Otho assumed power

- defeated Otho at Battle of Bedriacum where Otho committed suicide

- became emperor w/o support of Praetorian Guard, but could not make any good decisions

-was defeated by Pannonia troops who supported Vespasian, then killed in Rome during destructive fighting

Vespasian

declared emperor by many legions/troops due to widespread discontent with Vitellius --> defeated and killed Vitellius --> senate and people declared him emperor (ruled 69 - 79 CE)

founder of the Flavian dynasty which consolidated Roman rule in Germany and Britain by tending to Rome's borders - good, hardworking emperor who restored peace but strengthened the monarchical foundation of Principate

Flavian Dynasty

a dynasty of Roman emperors from 69 to 96 including Vespasian and his sons Titus and Domitian

beneficial ideology

idea that the emperor is supposed to benefit his people and act magnanimously - this paired with threat of force maintained peace

- fund construction projects

- give our personal money, goods, aid communities struck by disaster

- provide cheap food, entertainment

- freedmen could rise to prominence/wealth but still endured stigma

Bread and Circuses

public entertainment that roman elites used to keep the plebeians happy and distracted from problems in the empire

polytheistic empire

during Early Principate, empire had wide diversity of religious beliefs such as with Egyptian zoomorphic gods, Gaul female deities, Silvanus god of woodlands, etc

***Roman subjects could do as they pleased as long as they did reject state religious rituals

interpretatio

phenomenon where Roman assumed a equivalence between a foreign deity and a Roman god

Druidism

Celtic religion practiced in Gaul and Britain during Early Pricipate, an example of a religious that Rome persecuted because it functioned as a source of resistance to Roman authority

imperial cult

the practice in ancient Rome of offering sacrifice/worship to the Emperor to express loyalty to him and Rome, after Octavian every Princeps until Gratian was pontifex maximus, many emperors were deified after death and pursued religious associations

Vindex

governor of Gallia Lugdunensis in 67 CE, started an insurrection that led to Nero's downfall and a subsequent Germano-Gallic revolt

Lex de Imperio Vespasiani

Law of 69/70 that specified powers and rights of emperor, ratified by senate

-indicates institutionalization of Princeps due to popular support

BUT signified that emperor no longer had auctoritas (like Augustus' ambiguous individual power) or family loyalty (like Julio-Caludians)

Imperator

title adopted by Vespasian and subsequent emperors as a first name, indicated institutionalization of Principate

Thamugadi

a veteran colony in North Africa established by Trajan, had beautiful planning, monuments, and prosperity to represent the effects of "beneficial ideology" and Trajan's involvement in citizen initiatives as the Optimus Princeps "Best Princeps"

Germano-Gallic Revolt

69-70 ⇒ developed from Vindex's revolt in 68

-Gallic chieftain Gaius Julius Civilius led Gallic/Germanic tribes, the uprising was crushed

**Flavian emperors ended practice of recruiting local men to serve in native areas (b/c Vindex, Civilius) stationed people away from where they were recruited

Julius Civilis

Gallic chieftan who roused Gallic and German tribes during Germano-Gallic Revolt of 69-70, was crushed + emperors topped stationing recruits in the area they had been recruited

Titus

Vespasian's eldest son, ruled 79-81 - led opposition to Jewish revolt,

eruption of Mt. Vesuvius (79) and fire in Rome (60) = attempted to mitigate losses, banished informers and refused maiestas cases, but DIED prematurely

Domitian

younger son of Vespasian, ruled 81-96, became super autocratic and emphasized that the Princeps was above everyone else, personally went on campaigns to defeat Dacians - paranoid turned against senators and family - killed by conspiracy in 96

dominus et deus

It means "Lord and God." What Domitian referred to himself as...

damnatio memoriae

The Roman decree condemning those who ran afoul of the Senate. Those who suffered ________ ___________ had their memorials demolished and their names erased from public inscriptions. (Domitian, Commodus etc)

Nerva-Antonine Dynasty

A.k.a. the Five Good Emperors, Rome's "Golden Age"

Chosen by imperial adoption

Nerva (96-98)

Trajan (98-117)

Hadrian (117-38)

Antoninus Pius (138-61)

Marcus Aurelius (161-80)

Nerva

First of the "Good Emperors" ruled 96-98, focused on Italy - gave $$$ to landless citizens to buy land, established alimenta, died of natural causes

alimenta

Nerva's social welfare/child-support program where imperial treasury got money from low-interest loans of Italian landowners - distributed money to children

-possibly attempt to increase birth rate + TAKE CARE OF CHILDREN, AKA FUTURE OF EMPIRE

-establishing the idea that a good emperor takes care of children

Trajan

Nerva's adopted son, ruled 98-117, expanded empire to largest size, increased social welfare (Nerva's alimenta), established vet colonies, fought Dacian wars and Parthian campaign, died of illness

Optimus Princeps

Title given to Trajan meaning "best Princeps" - Trajan still emphasized he was not dominus, instead equal Roman leader, not monarch

curatore

caretaker officials appointed by Trajan who oversaw troubles in cities/regions for periods - ex) Pliny the Younger

Dacian Wars

The two military campaigns fought between the Roman Empire and Dacia during Roman Emperor Trajan's rule - resulted in many funds and were hugely successful because area super rich in gold, silver, iron = immense spoils and slaves

Decebalus

King of Dacian who had been friendly w Domitian in 88, but then attempted to expand = war, lost Dacian War

Trajan's Parthian campaign

(~113-117) begun when Trajan annexed Arabia Petraea during 2nd Dacian War and destabilized the area --> Parthian king replaced Roman vassal king of Armenia --> messy war in which Roman troops advanced into Mesopotamia - occupied Trajan until his death and ended in a Roman withdrawal

Second Jewish Revolt 115-117

erupted in _________, when most of the Roman armies were fighting Trajan's Parthian War in E - Major uprisings by Jews in Cyrenaica, Cyprus and Egypt resulting in a widespread slaughter of the Roman garrisons citizens - Jews were finally crushed by the Roman legions

-repression of Jews in Egypt particularly brutal

Hadrian

adoptive son of Trajan, ruled 117-138, devoted energy to consolidating/strengthening instead of expanding, traveled all throughout empire to establish administrative/defensive network - built bridges, roads, and aqueducts, built wall across Britain, died of illness

Hadrian's Wall

80 mile wall across N Britain to show the barbarian tribes that Rome wasn't expanding - separates Romans from non-Romans to establish inclusion/exclusion

Bar Kokhba Revolt/Third Jewish Revolt 132-135

Jews revolted under Hadrian

- Jews forbidden from entering Jerusalem

- Judaea renamed Syria Palestina

- Jews forcibly relocated, but were still allowed to practice religion because it was the resistance to Roman rule that was problem

scanae frons

elaborately decorated permanent architectural background of a Roman theatre stage, theater-going was a popular pastime, yet actors considered disreputable lol

Circus Maximus

a Roman outdoor arena in which public games, such as chariot races, were held - located at site Romulus and Romans abducted Sabine women

chariot racing

the most popular sport in ancient Rome - 4-horse chariots did at least 7 laps, very competitive, rich rewards, charioteers acclaimed

Ampitheater

rarer events held here, such as gladiatorial and beast fights

**spectacles used social manipulation to demonize gladiators/victims in order to unify Roman citizen spectators

-included public prayers + homage to emperor = peculiar mix of leisure, imperial duties, entertainment, religion

ad bestias

a sentence of death by being devoured by wild animals, for people found guilty of capital crime

aqueducts

Bridge-like stone structures that carry water from the hills into Roman cities, established by emperors after being used in vet colonies, v expensive

bath

peaked during Principate, undress in foyer → tepidarium (warm bath room) → sudatorium (sweat room) → frigidarium (great cool pool)

Antoninus Pius

Hadrian's successor, ruled 138-161 - no notable legal or administrative changes, harmony between emperor and senate - the uneventful rule signified a capable emperor and accomplished precedents (empire's heyday), died of illness

Antoninus' Wall

wall built 80 miles north of Hadrian's wall to consolidate reconquest of S Scotland - was abandoned soon around 161

Antonine Age

referring to emphasis on the family and the imperial dynasty during Antoninus' Principate

Marcus Aurelius

adopted son of Antoninus Pius and last of the "Good Emperors", ruled 161-180, was Pontifex Maximus and senior emperor to Lucius Verus, oversaw Rome and N frontiers, most famous for "beneficial ideology" and generosity, his council of advisors handled Rome when he was away, very educated, attended to border crisis

- died of natural causes after spending last days fighting groups along N frontier

Faustina the Younger

daughter of Antoninus Pius, wife of Marcus Aurelius (father's adopted son) = marriage produced 15 children to signify importance of family at the time period

Lucius Verus

Co-Augustus with Marcus Aurelius, ruled 161-169, oversaw E conflict against Parthians, died of stroke in 169 after engaging with threats along Danube

Parthian War of Lucius Verus 161-166

Parthians seized Armenia + invaded Syria --> Lucius Verus organized Roman forces and defeated Parthians, razed palace at Ctesiphon

- Parthians sued for peace, gave up N Mesopotamia but were still strong

- joint triumph for emperors

Antonine Plague 165-180

AKA Plague of Galen; an ancient pandemic (probably smallpox) brought back to the Roman Empire by troops returning from E campaigns - ⅕ of Alexandria died, cities + military camps decimated, weakened empire

Avidius Cassius

usurper and successful general in Parthian War of Lucius Verus, then governor of Egypt

175: told his troops that Marcus Aurelius was dead and he would assume imperial power - ruled in E for 4 months until subordinate killed him

-had gained support from Syrian troops b/c he was from Syria = emperors stopped putting people in charge of provinces they were from

Commodus

son and successor of Marcus Aurelius, ruled 176-192 (sole Augustus after 180) his council took care of most administrative duties

-fought as gladiator 365 times and killed thousands of animals

-Praetorian Prefects had a lot of power/influence

-had an erratic relationship w Senate = lots of disorder, rioting

- was assassinated in 192 by mistress and conspiracy including Praetorian Prefect, senate condemned memory (Septimius Severus canceled damnation tho)

Marcomannic Wars

(~166-180) wars between Rome and Germanic tribes, the Marcomanni and the Quadi, began against Aurelius and Verus then concluded by Commodus, resulted in the N front being significantly weakened with Barbarians now residing near or within the extended empire, beginning of struggles to come in 3rd, 4th and 5th centuries

Colonia Commodiana

name Commodus was planning on renaming Rome in Jan 193- was going to take consulship dressed as a gladiator and rename the city - was assassinated Dec 192 before it could happen

Severan Dynasty

Roman imperial dynasty that ruled 193 -235 after the chaos following Commodus' assassination - supposedly a renaissance for empire but marked by highly unstable family relationships and constant political turmoil

-attempted to diminish Senate influence in Italy, increase equities status

Year of Five Emperors 193

power struggle after Commodus' assassination between many groups (Senate, Praetorians, army)

- Septimius Severus eventually won

Septimius Severus

first emperor of the Severan dynasty, ruled 193-211, emerged as tactically brilliant in maneuvering to Principate

**from N Africa Libya, spoke w/ an accent = emperor doesn't have to be from Rome/Italy due to increasingly cosmopolitan empire w/ emphasis on provinces

-fought Parthians in glorious campaigns

-popular among troops, military reforms, removed marriage ban

-unpopular with senate b/c he gave more prestige to equites

- fought in Britian to deter N invasions and annex Scotland

Pertinax

senator and soldier of Marcus Aurelius, first proclaimed Princeps by Senate during Year of Five Emperors → murdered by Praetorian Prefects

-pursued damnatio for Commodus

-mistakenly sells high offices to raise money b/c empire is running out of money, yet this alienates the Senate

-was later deified by Septimius Severus

Albinus

British legions declared him emperor during Year of Five Emperors (193), was declared "Caesar" of Britain by Septimius Severus + adopted by him

-eventually defeated by Septimius at Battle of Legdunum (196) in Gaul

Battle of Lugdunum 196

Septimius Severus decisively defeats Albinus in Gaul in a bloody battle

Pescennius Niger

legate of Syria, declared Emperor by Syrian legions during Year of Five Emperors - went around E to drum up support

-Septimius Severus marched to him in E, seiged his base at Byzantium + destroyed city, seized Antioch, and killed him fleeing E

-Severus subsequently divided Syria into two provinces to reduce # of troops under command of 1 governor

Septimius Severus' Parthian Campaigns

194-195 and 197-199: fought Pathians b/c they supported Niger and seized Roman territory

-annexed N Mesopotamia + created Osroene province in glorious campaigns

BUT some criticism of overextension of Roman power - eventually Pathian kingdom was weakened and the more aggressive Sasanians would come to power

mater castrorum

"mother of the camps" name given to Septimius Severus' wife Julia Domna who accompanied him on campaign - illustrates personal nature of emperor's ties to military

Caracalla

son of Septimius Severus (198-217, Sole Augustus after 211), a more incompetent/erratic ruler

- did increase military pay + grant citizenship to all

- failed to defend empire's borders despite endless campaigns against Germanic tribes, Parthians, etc

- assassinated in 217 at Carrhae

constitutio Antoniniana 212

law given by emperor Caracalla granting Roman citizenship to virtually all free inhabitants of the Empire

***reduced prestige of Italy and old senatorial rule, contributing to decentralization of power in Rome/Italy

- obliterated old social distinctions, unified legal system, allegedly increased # army recruits, uniform taxes

Macrinus

usurper who ruled 217-218 - Prefect of Praetorian Guard who killed Caracalla, first emperor w/o senatorial rank (equite)

- forged connection to Severans via name changes

-unsuccessful in Parthian campaign + mass criticism for attempting to make peace treaty

- reduced army pay, kept Danubeian troops in E = more unpopular

- executed & decapitated by troops in coup by Julia Maesa = damnatio memoriae

Julia Maesa

sister of Julia Domna and mother to Julia Soaemias and Julia Mamaea who worked to restore the Severan dynasty after Macrinus' usurping / Caracalla's assassination, placed Caracalla's illegitimate son Elagabalus (her grandson) as emperor because he was young and easily controlled; he was an unpopular leader so forced him adopt his cousin Severus Alexander as successor

Elagabalus

ruled 218-22 after being put in power by grandmother Julia Maesa, named for a Syrian sun god (his real name was Bassianus)

- VERY strange rule

- preoccupied with religious rituals for Syrian sun god of Emesa, citizens alienated by manic, orgiastic rites

-sex scandals

-considered freakish, mother and grandmother basically ruled

- in 222 his aunt Julia Mamaea bribed Praetorians to murder him so her son was emperor

Severus Alexander

Last emperor of the Severan dynasty ruled 222-235 after Julia Maesa forced Elagabalus to adopt him

-deferred to the Senate, gave Praetorian Prefect role to senator not equite

-reduced taxes, aided grain supply, subsidized teachers and scholars

- successful recovery of Mesopotamia from King Ardashir I of Sasanians

- but had problematic relationship with military, alienated his legions by engaging in diplomacy w German invaders and they assassinated him (235)

honestiores

The senatorial, equestrian classes, municipal officials, and vets whose status entitled them to immunity from torture, lesser criminal fines, and, in capital crimes, exemption from crucifixion.

humiliores

all those with low social status, often tradesmen, artisans, or small business owners who were not seen as virtuous - if convicted in court of law, were sentenced to working in mines (high fatality), hard labor, thrown to beasts in amphitheater