AP Psychology - Memory Mini Unit

Memory

The persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

Recall

Retrieving information that is not currently in your conscious awareness but that was learned at an earlier time.

Recognition

Identifying items previously learned

Relearning

Learning something more quickly when you learn it a second or later time.

Encoding

The process of getting information into the memory system

Storage

The process of retaining information over time.

Retrieval

The process of getting information out of memory storage.

Sensory Memory

The immediate very brief recording of sensely information in the memory system.

Short-Term Memory

Activated memory that holds a few (5-9) items briefly (10-30 seconds) before information stored or forgotten

Long-Term Memory

The relatively permanent and limitless store house of the memory system.

Central Executive

A memory component that directs our selective attention.

Phonological Loop

A memory component that briefly holds auditory information.

Visuospatial Sketchpad

A memory component that briefly holds information about subjects’ appearance and location in a space.

Long-Term Potentiation

A persistent increase in the strength of Synapses between neurons in the brain, and is the neural basis for learning and memory.

Explicit or Declorative Memory

The retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously know

• Semanic

• Episodic

Implicit or Nondeclarative Memory

• Retention of learned skills / procedural memory, such as riding a bike

• Classically conditioned associations

Effortful Processing

We encode explicit memories through effort full processing, which requires attention and conscious effort.

Automatic Processing

We encode implicit memories through automatic processing, which is the unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time and frequency.

Ionic Memory

Momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli

Echoic Memory

Momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

Chunking

Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

• Phone numbers

Mnemonics

Memory aids, especially these techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

• Method of loci - placing things into catogories

Sematic Networks

Represented in a dense network of hierarchical association. Those at the top are quickly retrieved.

Spacing Effect

The tendency for distributed study/practice to yield better long-term retention than achieved through massed practice

Shallow Encoding

Encodes on a basic level, such as a word’s letters (structural) or, at a more intermediate level, a word’s sound (phonemic)

Deep Encoding

Encodes semantically, based on the meaning of the words. The deeper more meaningful the processing, the better our retention.

Elaborative Rehearsal

Helps commit information to long-term memory. Contextualizes information for better storage and retrieval.

Maintenance Rehearsal

Use to commit information to short term memory. Uses repetition without contextualization.

Autobiographical Memories

Events and skills from long ago in a persons life can be retrieved.

Hippocampus

Brain region that initially processes explicit memories

Memory Consolidation

neural storage of long-term memory in the cortex as memories migrate away from the hippocampus.

Cerebellum & Basal Ganglia

• Coordinated movements

• Procedural memory

Amygdala

Emotional memories

Flash Bulb Memories

Clear sustained memories of emotionally significant moments or events.

• Ex: 9/11

Retrospective

From the Past

Prospective

Intended future actions

Retrieval Clues

Stimuli that help retrieve information from LTM - The more the better

Priming

Procedure of providing cues that stimulate memories without awareness of the connection between the clue and the retrieved memory.

Encoding Specificity Principle

The idea that clues and context its specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it.

Context - Dependent Memory

The activation of memory when returning to the setting of the original encoding

• Forgetting when you came to the kitchen for, returning to your room and remembering you needed to add an item to a grocery list

State dependent memory

The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with the state in which a person what at a time of encoding

Mood-congruent memory

The tendency to recall experiences that one consistent with one’s current good to bad mood.

Serial Position Effect

Our tendency to best remember to items at the beginning and end of a list

Recency Effect

Only remembering the end of the list

Primary Efffect

Only remembering the beginning of the list

Metacognition

Thinking about thinking; in this case monitoring and evaluating your own learning.

Testing Effect

Repeated self-testing and rehearsal improves memory & learning

Interleaving

Switching between topics of study and/or studying different, but related concepts; boosts retention, protects against overconfidence, and allows for extra retrieval practice.

Method of loci

Placing things into categories

Episodic Memory

Experienced Events

Procedural Memory

Retention of learned skills

Working Memory

Conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

Sensory Memory

The immediate very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

Levels of Processing

• Shallow processing / encoding

• Deep processing / encoding

Structual Processing

Shallow processing based on the words letters.

Phonemic Processing

Shallow Processing based on the words sound.

Semantic Processing

Deep Processing based on the words meaning

Categories

Placing items into catagories can help enhance encoding and retrieval.

Heirarchies

Hierarchies in the information were trying to remember can help aid retrieval.

Massed Practice

“cramming” or a large amount of information trying to be remembered in a short period of time.

Distributed Practice

Yields better long-term retention, such as studying a little each night.

Duration vs. Capacity

Short-Term - 18-30 sec and 5 to 9 items

Long-Term - Unlimited in Duration and Capacity

Memory Retention

Explicit memory involves the retention of facts and experiences that one can consistently know.

Highly Superior Autobiographical Memory

People who can remember everything about their past.

Retrograde Amnesia

An inability to recall past memories.

Anterograde Amnesia

An inability to form new memories

Alzheimer’s Disease

A progressive brain disorder that causes memory loss, confusion, and other cognitive decline.

Infantile Amnesia

The inability to remember things from early childhood, typically before age 3.

Forgetting Curve

Encoding Failure

Sometimes, forgetting happens because we didn’t properly encode the information in the first place.

Proactive Interference

Prior learning interferes with recall of new information.

Retroactive Interference

New learning disrupts recall of old information.

Tip-of-the-tongue Phenomenon

Sometimes information is encoded and stored, but cannot be retrieved.

Ego Defence Mechanism

Banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.

Repression

The basic ego defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.  

Misinformation Effect

A phenomenon that occurs when misleading information has distorted one’s memory of an event.

Source Amnesia

Impaired memory for how, where, or when information was learned despite good memory for the information itself.

Imagination Inflation

Repeatedly imagining an event and increasing your confidence, despite its distortion or invention.

Constructive Memory

Repeatedly imagining an event and increasing your confidence, despite its distortion or invention.

Memory Consolidation

The neural storage of long term memory in the cortex as memories migrate away from the hippocampus.