PHIL 341 CH 11 WCU

inductive reasoning

reasoning used to support rather than to demonstrate a conclusion

argument from analogy

an argument that something has an attribute because a similar thing has that attribute.

i.e. Bill is a Democrat

Thus, Bill's brother is a democrat

analogue

a person or thing seen as comparable to another.

i.e. Bill is a Democrat

Thus, Bill's brother is a democrat

the analogue in this argument are Bill and Sam

conclusion analogue

i.e. Bill is a Democrat

Thus, Bill's brother is a democrat

the conclusion analog is Sam

attribute of interest

i.e. Bill is a Democrat

Thus, Bill's brother is a democrat

the attribute of interest is being a democrat

premise analogue

i.e. Bill is a Democrat

Thus, Bill's brother is a democrat

the premise analogue is Bill

argument from analogy

i.e. Wolves thrive on raw meat

Therefore, dogs will thrive on raw meat

i.e. Wolves thrive on raw meat

Therefore, dogs will thrive on raw meat

what is the analogue ?

wolves and dogs

i.e. Wolves thrive on raw meat

Therefore, dogs will thrive on raw meat

what is the conclusion-analogue ?

dogs

i.e. Wolves thrive on raw meat

Therefore, dogs will thrive on raw meat

what is the attribute of interest ?

thriving on raw meat

i.e. Wolves thrive on raw meat

Therefore, dogs will thrive on raw meat

what is the premise analogue?

wolves

analogues that lack the attribute of interest are

contrary analogues

the fewer _______ among the premise - analogues the stronger the argument

contrary analogues

attacking the analogy

time honored strategy for debuting an argument from analogy, showing that the premise-analgues or analogues are not that similar to the conclusion-analogue as implied

weak analogy

weak argument based on debatable or unimportant similarities between two or more things.

generalize from a sample

when you assume that all of the population will have that attribute because most do

So far, I've liked all of Professor P's lectures

Therefore, i will like all of his lectures

what is this an example of?

generalize from a sample

The less diversified the sample, the ______ the generalization

weaker

Generalizations based on samples too small to accurately mirror the overall population are generally _____.

weak

the more atypical the sample, _______ the generalization.

weaker, it should better represent the population rather than outliers

sampling frame

a set of criteria that make it clear for any specific thing whether or not it is a member of the population and whether or not it has the attribute of interest.

biased (skewed) sample

aka an atypical sample, one in which the variables that may be linked to the attribute of interest are not are not present in the same proportion as in the population of interest

random sample

is one selected by a procedure that gives every member of a population an equal chance of being included

statistical syllogism

applies a general statement to a specific case

Most teachers are democrats

Jo is a teacher

Therefore, Jo must be a democrat

what is this an example of ?

Statistical syllogism

principle of total evidence

the idea that in estimating probabilities of something you must take into account all available relevant information.

this walks like a duck, talks like a duck, and looks like a duck. Therefore, it must be a duck.

what is this an example of and why?

statistical syllogism, the argument assumes that a high proportion of things listed are evident in the conclusion population

causal statement

sets forth the cause of some event. similar to an argument

i.e. of an argument: the toilet is leaking because the floor is wet

i.e. of a causal statement:

the floor is wet because the toilet is leaking

causal hypothesis

is a tentative claim offered for farthing investigation or testing.

what is a strong sample

a strong sample accurately and clearly mirrors the population

what is a strong argument from analogy

there are strong similarities between the premise analogue and conclusion analogue

the analogue has an increasing number of premise analogues

paired unusual events principle

If something unusual happens, look for something else unusual that has happened and consider whether it might be the cause

As soon as my throat got scratchy I took zicam.

my sore throat went away and I never caught a cold. therefore, maybe zicam prevents colds

what is this an example of

paired unusual events principle

common variable principle

a variable common to multiple occurrences of something may be related to it casually

when several people complained to their physicians about acute intestinal distress, health officials investigated and found that all of them had eaten tacos at the county fair.

therefore, perhaps the tacos caused the distress

what is this an example of

common variable principle

covariation principle

when a variation in one phenomenon is accompanied by a variation in another phenomenon, we have covariation or correlation, these being the same for our purposes

when meat consumption in Holland went up after WWII so did the rate of prostate cancer.

therefore, perhaps eating meat causes prostate cancer

what is this an example of

covariation principle

randomized controlled experiment

one in which subjects are randomly assigned either to an "experiment group" or a "control" which differ from one another in only one respect: subjects in the experimental group are subjected to the to the suspected cause

prospective observational studies

when two groups are observed and the compare the frequency of something, watches for future outcomes

retrospective observational study

one works backwards from a phenomenon of interest to a suspected cause or causal factor