ARTH 219/LA 22; Islamic Architecture & Gardens - Exam 1

Contains Vocab, readings, and Site IDs (only 23)

Ibn Asakir: The Pact of Umar

The Pact of Umar was a list of rights that gave protection in conquered cities to Christians and Jews (dhimmis). The pat was drawn after the conquest of Damascus and promised certain freedoms to the dhimmis for behavior and discretion.

Nasir-i Khusraw: A Description of Kaaba

This is an account of an eyewitness' description of the Haram Mosque and Kaaba he mentions the black stone corner and the textile covering (kiswa). He describes the seven gates on the exterior as well as the interior detailing things like columns, use of marble, silver mihrabs, planks from Noah's arc.

Dome of the Rock Inscriptions

One of the highest and most visible points in the city that had preexisting religious significance (place where Abraham was going to sacrifice his son). It is the earliest surviving Islamic work of architecture and contains the earliest bands of inscription, mostly consisting of Quranic passages.

Al-Baladhuri: How the Muslim Community Obtained the Site for the Mosque of Damascus

Al-Baladhuri relates the story of how the Muslim community of Damascus wished to demolish the church of St.John to build a new house of worship. He says that tried to purchase the church, however it was rejected twice and a caliph eventually deemed demolition.

Ibn Shaddad: On Rusafa

Rusafa was a Syrian city adopted and rebuilt by an Umayyad caliph. The city housed great water tanks that stored rainwater inside the waterless desert.

Al-Masudi: On the Founding of Samarra

An account of why the Abbasid caliph decided to quit Baghdad and search for a better site for his palace. The fiat city became overcrowded and the residents began complaining about the abuse of power from soldiers.

Kitab al-hadaya wa al-tuhaf: A Reception of Byzantine Ambassadors in Baghdad

The Fatimid author tells how two envoys went from Byzantine court to the Abbasid count to ransom Byzantines who had been taken prisoner/negotiate a peace treaty. They were smothered with opulence and wealth of the Abbasid court.

Ibn Idhari: On the Mosque of Cordoba

A description of the various stages of construction of the Great Mosque of Cordoba, it was at first a christian church, however it was purchased and demolished to build the mosque. They built a garden, courtyard, and a minaret.

Abd al Rahman I: Ode to a Palm Tree

A poem about an exiled Umayyad-Hispano caliph driven out of Syria by the Abbasids and his longing for his Syrian roots. It represents the hybrid culture of Umayyad Cordoba.

Ibn Ghalib: On the Construction of Madinat al-Zahra

Accounts of the construction of the great Umayyad palace city, Madinat al-Zahra. It details the splendor/majesty, as well as the accounting-material/labor cost of the project.

The Quran: On Paradise

The Quran depicts paradise as a garden with four flowing rivers and ripe fruit. This could be the written explanation of why there are four-part, cross-axial garden plans- essentially they were used to compare a garden to the paradise's beauty.

Mufaddal ibn Abi al Fada'il: On the Fatimid Processions to the Four Mosques

In the city of Cairo, the Shi'a Fatimids used a public display to position themselves in power over the Sunni population. They began parading on Successive Fridays to one of the four congregational mosques. Through this parade they were able to merge religion with politics and secular power.

Trabeated

Vertical columns holding up horizontal roof

Hajj

Muslim makes the trip to Mecca

Hypostyle

vertical columns, enclosed space, oriented towards mecca

Circumambulation

the act of walking around a sacred object or place

Mihrab

a marker—usually an arched niche—that identifies the qibla wall as the wall closest to Mecca

Minbar

small set of steps in front of the qibla wall, stood on to amplify voice over

Dhimmi

non-Muslims who lived in an Islamic state and were protected by law

Sunni

insist on the legitimacy of the Umayyad line

Shi'i

insist on the legitimacy of the prophet's line, through Ali and Fatima

Ambulatory

a semi-circular aisle that wraps itself around a central space

Kufic script

earliest extant Islamic style of handwritten alphabet

Spolia

the practice of reusing architectural elements from older structures in new construction

Nave

the central part of a church/mosque building

Cardo & Decumanus

cross axial street, cardo is vertical axis, decumanus is horizontal axis

Arcuated

arched

Khan / Caravanserai

small residential block that offered food, shelter, and water to travelers & merchants

Chahar Bagh

a garden that is divided into quadrants

Apse

a large niche

Merlon

solid portions of wall that alternate with empty spaces and together cap a wall

Iwan

a vaulted hall, closed at one end and open at the other

Noria

water wheel, pulled by an animal or propelled by a river or stream

Qanat

Underground aqueduct, leads from under a mountain to a city

Shaduf

a hand-operated device used to lift water from a body of water to land

Wadi

seasonal stream

Haram

reserved, private or sacred area

Iwan

like a hallway open on one end, usually arched overhead

Nine-Bay Mosque Type

a square-shaped mosque with four columns dividing the space into nine bays

Horseshoe Arch

a curved arch that widens at the top and narrows at the bottom, resembling the shape of a horseshoe

Voussoir

wedge shaped blocks used in an arch

Muezzin

the person who calls the faithful to prayer five times daily

Maqsura

A barrier around the mihrab (and possibly minbar) to protect the prince

Mirador

tower attached to a building and providing an extensive view

Ziyada

the outer enclosure of a mosque

Lustre Tile

type of metallic overglaze applied to ceramic and glass

Muqarnas

small curved niches stacked to create a honeycomb effect

Hadith

Sayings of the Prophet and reports based on observation of him and his practices

Skewed Façade

a façade that does not align with the building interior

Keel Arch

arch with straight sides that curve over the dome's shoulder and then flatten out again as they reach the apex of the dome

Mashhad

a shrine or commemorative mosque

Umayyad

7th-8th century

Abbasid Dynasty

8th-13th century

Hispano-Umayyad Dynasty

8th-11th century

Tulunid Dynasty

9th-10th century

Aghlabid Dynasty

9th-10th century

Fatimid Dynasty

10th-12th century

The Prophet's House, Medina, 7th century

- The space was oriented, allowing its occupants to align themselves in rows as they prayed in the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca

- The simple open structure was infinitely expandable, accommodating itself easily to the growing population of Muslims

- the space was egalitarian (status was nonexistent and all were treated as equals)

The Kaaba

Mecca, Saudi Arabia

- The Kaba is the building towards which Muslims face five times a day, everyday, in prayer

- millions of Muslims come from across the world to stay in huge tent communities in Mecca and to ritually circumambulate

- Symbolic Marker as the Center of Islam

- The Prophet (Muhammad) Cleansed the Kaaba of its Pagan idols and dedicated it to Islam’s One God

• Contains an ancient meteor

Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem, 7th century, Umayyad

- supposedly built on the formerly Solomons temple (seen as a victory monument)

- it is not a congregational mosque, because its construction is not well understood; still a place for prayer

- extensive mosaics that borrow inspiration and technique from the Byzantine Empire (Mosaic subjects, like crowns, jewels, and vines add to Victory element)

Mosque of Damascus, Damascus, 8th century, Umayyad

- First a Roman Temple, then a Christian Church, then finally a Mosque

- Double Arches in Interior: makes ceilings higher (Similar method used @ Cordoba)

- Byzantine mosaics on the Courtyard facade show scenes of paradise (afterlife is paradise)

- Perpendicular Nave

Anjar, Lebanon, 8th century, Umayyad

- Followed the system of Roman City planning (grid-like) with 4 city gates and two “main streets” running through

- The “cardo” (NS) and “Decumanus” (EW) Axis —> shops featured on the Cardo

- The Governor’s house was built and placed next to the Mosque for Safety Reasons

Qasr al-Hayr East, Syrian Desert, 8th century, Umayyad Dynasty,

• Agriculture and trading settlement

- Enclosure would trap seasonal water from the Wadi, which enabled the cultivation of Olives

• Sat on a trade route; herdsman/merchants stayed at the Khan

- has never been attacked but has strong defenses (missile balcony)

Khirbat al-Mafjar, Bath Hall; 8th Century, In Desert near Jericho, Umayyad Dynasty

• Attached to palace; water was seen as a display of luxury and power

• Caliph would show it of to local chieftains who came to visit

• Floor Mosaic: Gazelles and the Lion (Peace vs. War) (Byzantine Mosaic)

• Statue of Caliph also expressed power

Mshatta, Jordan, 8th century, Umayyad Dynasty

- Vast rectangular + walled enclosure; divided in 3rds (Only central third was built)

• Featured an elaborate throne room and ornamented limestone Facade; inspired by Byzantines with potted vines and leaves

• Special Dome: emerges purpose of marking a special architectural place (Place of the prince, middle of the sphere, middle of Muslim world)

Rusafa (Syria), in the desert, 8th century, Umayyad,

- Agricultural estate? Hisham (Umayyad Caliph) adopted city as a country resort and as an escape from the congestion of Damascus

- may be the oldest surviving Islamic garden with the four-part plan called a chahar bagh —> Placed caliph at the Center of the garden (center of the visible world)

- it served as a good place to meet with tribal chieftains and negotiate while showcasing the water management

Baghdad, on the banks of the Tigris River, 8th century, Abbasid

• Circular City —> made for horrible expansion (if you expand one, side you have to expand all sides)

• Fiat City (Caliph/Patrons demanded it to be built and it was); Usually linear or rectangular

• Soldiers towards the center lacked loyalty and were disrespectful

• Caliph felt trapped in the middle, very overcrowded

Qasr al-Khilafa, Samarra, 9th century, Abbasid

- Immense Caliphal palace with grand steps and gardens on the riverside entrance; even featured a water pipe irrigation system for the gardens

- e-Iwan gate @ the summit called the Bab al-Amma whose axis leads towards the throne room

- Sprawling polo grounds, racetrack, emphasis on leisure

Balkuwara Palace, Samarra, 9th century, Abbasid

- Due to slight terracing, the throne room is the highest point of the palace

- caliph's throne room is located deep within the palace, keeping the caliph himself removed from public view, an increasingly mysterious and inaccessible figure

- Garden courtyard mosaic featuring green, gold, and mother of pearl and triple arched portal (leads to both throne room and garden courtyard)

Great Mosque of al-Mutawakkil, Samarra (Iraq), 9th century, Abbasid

- the largest mosque in the Islamic world

- The Mosque’s Minaret —> The spiral is formed by a ramp that runs around and up the exterior of the minaret, with a surface wide enough to accommodate a rider on a donkey. (Said to be inspired by Byzantine Ziggurats)

- Samarran beveled style," it consisted of stucco that was carved while it was drying yet still malleable (faster and cheaper than brick or marble)

Masjid-i Tarikh, Balkh, 9th century, Abbasid

- The mosque was handsomely decorated with carved stucco covering

- the material presence in Balkh of stucco that so clearly resembles that of Samarra demonstrates that there was a real connection between the two areas and shows the reach of the Abbasids

- a small neighborhood mosque (not a congregational mosque) (proved by lack of courtyard and size)

Great Mosque of Cordoba, Cordoba, Spain, 8th century, Hispano-Umayyad Dynasty

- arcades bore a two-tiered arcade, so that the ceiling was raised high overhead and inspired awe and wonder

- The red and white voussoirs in the arcades was surprising, beautiful, and so distinctive that in time it came to be a recognizable sign—a visual symbol—for the entire Cordoba mosque

- to the rising rate of religious conversion and population of the people who lived there meant the mosque had to be expanded numerous times

• Built on site of Christian church

• Portal of San Estaban: purely visual ornamentation on exterior around door

Bib Mardum Mosque, Toledo, 10th century, Hispano-Umayyad Dynasty

- 9 Unique domes that have symbolic function to remind viewers of cordoba (mother mosque)

- columns are made of spolia (reused material) bc it is practical and also a sign of conquest

- foundation inscription that tell us name and date of private patron and competition

• Squinches are used —> small arch spanning corner of dome: creates transition from four side —> eight band; square base to round

Madinat al-Zahra, Cordoba (Spain) , 10th century, Hispano-Umayyad Dynasty

- greatest of the suburban agricultural estates of cordoba (+ fiat city)

- The enormous size and splendor of Madinat al-Zahra was a clear expression of Abd al-Rahman III's new status as ruler of a kingdom

- three artificial terraces allowed the caliph to get an amazing view of his kingdom from his garden ( low: residential area and mosque, mid: huge terrace, high: Salon Rico)

• Salon Rico: Reception hall; stucco and painted arches; used to look out over gardens = Supervision of Kingdom

Mosque of Ibn Tulun, cairo, 9th century, the Tulunid dynasty

- It has an outer courtyard (ziyada) which functions as barrier between the mosque and the marketplace; (separates from Urban encroachment)

- spiral staircase is a copy of the mutawakkil (reveals Abassid influence)

- stucco is a substitute for marble in composite piers

Great Mosque of Qairawan, Tunisia, 9th century, Aghlabid Dynasty

- With its hypostyle plan on spolia columns, the stone mosque could easily be expanded

- The mihrab was exquisitely ornamented. It had pierced marble panels in the curvature of the niche and golden lustre tiles embedded in its frame

- The dome overhead is fluted — sometimes described as a pumpkin dome because of its sensuously curved ribbed external surface.

Mosque of al-Azhar, Cairo, 10th century, Fatamid

- one of two great congregational mosques Fatamids endowed in Cairo

- soon became a center of learning, and today it is part of the much larger, famed Azhar University.

- very little of the original architecture remains because of its constant use

• Corner domes @ end of Qibla isle emphasize the organization of place and spacial hierarchy

• Stucco ornamentation inspired by Ibn Tulun Mosque

Mosque of al-Hakim, Cairo, 10th century, Fatamid

• Other great congregations mosque endowed by Fatamids in Cairo

- used to be located outside the city walls, but it was enclosed and included within the city when the walls were rebuilt in 1087.

- copies both the plan of the Ibn Tulun Mosque and the al-Azhar

- The southern minaret bears a foundation inscription with al-Hakim's name and the date 1003.

Mosque of al-Aqmar, cairo, 12th century, Fatimids

- Highly ornamented face with muqarnas and a medallion over the front entrance (symbols make allusion to shi’ism with a lamp, 6-pointed star, etc.)

- Introduction of skewed face: building that doesn't align with building interior (facade faces street @ angle)

- has foundation inscription of patron and date and quran inscription

Mashhad of Sayyida Ruqayya, Cairo, 12th century, Fatimid Dynasty

- a shrine built in memory of one of the descendents of Ali and Fatima although she is not buried here (it is only for commeroative purposes

- has a lot of mihrabs so people could perform personal prayer although some view this as a polytheistic practice

- shrines like these are often more experimental which explains the tall octagonal dome because they express personal taste and not community values

Great Mosque of Mahdiya, 10th century, Mahdiya, Fatimid Dynasty

-Birthplace of Fatimid Dynasty

• Hypostyle mosque; mihrab marked by dome

• elaborated facade with projecting portal and end towers give emphasis to exterior

Dome of the Rock

Mosque of Damascus

Anjar

Qasr al-Hayr East

Khirbat al-Mafjar

Mshatta

Musafa

What Buildings/Area were made in the Umayyad Dynasty?

Baghdad

Qasr al-Khilafa

Bulkuwara Palace

Great Mosque of Al-Mutawakkil

Masjud-i Tarikh

What buildings/areas were in the Abbasid Dynasty?

Great Mosque of Cordoba

Bib Mardum Mosque

Madinal al-Zahra

What buildings/areas were in the Hispano-Umayyad Dynasty?

Mosque of Ibn Tulun

What buildings/areas were in the Tulunid Dynasty?

Great Mosque of Qairawan

What buildings/areas were in the aghlabid Dynasty?

Mosque of al-Azar

Mosque of al-Hakim

Mosque of al-Aqmar

Mashhad of Sayyida Raqayya

Great Mahdiya Mosque

What buildings/areas were in the Fatimid Dynasty?

Mecca and Medina

What are the two principal cities of early Islam?

Profession of Faith, prayer, charity, fasting during Ramadan, and Pilgrimage (hajj)

What are the Five Pillars of Islam (use either the English or Arabic terms).

Medina. Enclosed, oriented, infinitely expandable, and egalitarian

Where was the Prophet’s House (and thus first mosque) located and what are its defining characteristics?

South

From the Prophet’s House, in what direction would the faithful face when they prayed?

Pilgrimage is required once in the lifetime of a capable Muslim. The hajj draws the Muslim community together from disparate areas of the Islamic world and thus forms a cultural crossroads for the exchange of ideas about society as well as art and architecture.

What is the significance of the hajj, and what specific impact does it have for Islamic art and architecture?

Set of steps from which the imam delivers the sermon to the congregation; pulpit of a church or the Bima of a synagogue

What is a minbar and what is its function? Do Christian churches and Jewish synagogues have similar devices?

The direction of Mecca from any point in the world → in Muslim prayer, face the Qibla; wall of the mosque closest to Mecca is called the Qibla Wall

What is the Qibla?

Strongly shuns images in religious environments, but not in more secular environments like palaces/scientific/literary books → not to avoid human and animal images but to avoid the temptation of idolatry

Does Islamic art ban figural images?

661-750 CE

What are the dates of the Umayyad dynasty?

Romans and Byzantines (among others). It supplied already developed road and urban systems, as well as techniques, motifs, formal types, and ideas for art and architecture.

Underlying the newly conquered Islamic landscape was a landscape already shaped and built by whom? What effect did this have on early Islam?

Reused architectural materials

What is a Spolia?

A large nave runs from the central mihrab to the courtyard. It creates a new mihrab axis that emphasizes the space as being hierarchically more important than the surrounding aisles.

The House of the Prophet in Madina became the first mosque. What changes to mosque planning were introduced with the Great Mosque of Damascus and how did these affect the egalitarianism that was such a striking characteristic of that first mosque in Madina?

They are aniconic, meaning that instead of images of people, there are images of plants and trees, objects, geometrical ornament, and inscriptions.

How are the mosaics in the Dome of the Rock and the Great Mosque of Damascus different from mosaics found in Byzantine churches?