Paper One - Civil Rights and Protest

IB History Paper One - Apartheid and Civil Rights in America

Dred Scott

Dred Scott was an African American slave who moved with his master from the South to the North and lived there for about 4 years. He sued fro freedom on the basis of his long residency in free territory. This case went up to the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court was dominated by Southerners and even the chief justice (Robert Taney) was Southern. Dred Scott lost his case because since he was considered property (a salve) he could not sue in federal court. The Court ruled also ruled that the Common Property Doctrine applied everywhere (slavery - legal everywhere). The North was horrified.

Freedmen's Bureau Bill

A bill put in place by republicans stating that when free, all slaves would receive free land in the U.S. The thinking behind it was that since slaves didn't have many skills except planting, this could let them plant. This was meant to aid ex-slaves during the transition from war to peace, and slavery to freedom (gave food, clothes, education, & hospitals). This was vetoed by Johnson.

14th Amendment

The purpose of this amendment was to give citizenship to African American men. The south didn't want to ratify this and argued that African Americans couldn't vote since the amendment didn't specify anything about that. Although it took a few years, it ultimately did go through.

15th Amendment

This republican implemented amendment stated that African American men could vote. Women were frustrated by this because they still weren't able to vote. They thought that they were more educated and qualified to vote than African American men. This amendment harmed women's suffrage and women couldn't vote until 50+ years later with eh implementation of the 19th amendment. This amendment and Radical Reconstruction in general was beneficial to African Americans between 1867 and 1877. African men were voting, their votes counted, and it was safe for them to vote. They also ended up holding political office (local, state, and even a handful at the national level \[congress\]). Radical Reconstruction temporarily repealed Black Codes and schools, hospitals, etc. were built.

Sharecropping

Sharecropping was a way in which former slaves could work for their former masters to rent part of their land. On the surface, this seemed great for former slaves. Since many of them were used to working in fields, didn't have property, didn't have money, and the only skill they really had was farm work, this let plantation owners make a deal. The ex-slaves could rent part of their land if they grew crops and gave them a portion (almost all actually). Ex-slaves didn't have farm equipment, animals, seed, etc. so they made a rental agreement with the plantation owner to loan them stuff. This loan was extremely hard to pay off and former slaves became trapped in an endless cycle of debt. This wasn't that much different from slavery and is called the "New Slavery" by historians.

Ku Klux Klan

The Ku Klux Klan (KKK) was an illegal terrorist group made up of white supremacists. Since this was illegal, the group wore robes and went out in the cover of night to make them unrecognizable. The group would scare/intimidate (like burning a cross) African Americans. They would also whip and lynch (any type of execution/killing for terrorist type reasons). This put fear in African Americans and made them think twice about whether it was worth it to vote if them or someone they knew might be killed. The goal of the KKK was to restore white supremacies and to destroy African American political power.

Plessy vs. Ferguson (1896)

Homer Plessy was a 1/8 African American man (looked White) who lived in Louisiana. Plessy boarded a Whites only train car (illegal), but someone knew his background. Plessy took this to court and the case made its way to the Supreme Court, but he lost. The Supreme Court ruled that "separate but equal" was legally accepted and allowed for segregation laws.

Booker T. Washington's Views on Segregation (Accommodationist; Atlanta Compromise Address)

Booker T. Washington was the foremost black leader of his day and was considered as a racial accommodationist (Accommodate the wishes of the South) because it was too dangerous to rebel. He preached patience and thought that African Americans would one day be equal w/ white people if they just followed the rules. Washington advocated for vocational (industrial) jobs. He also founded Tuskegee institute where African Americans got a basic education (6-8th grade equivalent today \[read, write, do basic math\]). After their basic education, they would go on to learn a trade. They were also taught them how to fit into the White world and not make them upset (Basic hygiene, how to dress, how to have good manners).

W.E.B. DuBois' Views that Disagreed with Washington

He was the first African American to receive a doctorate from Harvard and thought that African Americans should seek a liberal arts education. He said that the system would not change on its own (unlike Booker T. Washington). He wanted racial equality and wanted it immediately. He also created the idea of the Talented Tenth in which there needed to start with 10% of all African Americans going to college.

Harlem Renaissance

Harlem was in the northern part of Manhattan, NY and was mostly African-American populated. People now had time to indulge in the arts (literature, art, poetry, music - JAZZ, photography, scholars, etc.) and they flourished.

Marcus Garvey

He was a Jamaican immigrant and the new rival of DuBois. His message was that African-Americans would never be treated equally in America and should go back to Africa to feel more whole and accepted. Not many went back to Africa because they wanted to be treated this was in AMERICA! He also made the Universal negro Improvement Association (UNIA).

Brown vs. Board of Education

This was a supreme court case that went against what was ruled in Plessy vs. Ferguson. A girl named Linda Brown (an African American schoolgirl) lived near a white school, but couldn't go because of the segregation laws. The Supreme Court ruled that the segregation of public schools wasn't allowed. Many parts of the south were openly defiant to this though, with a "Make us!" kind of attitude.

Montgomery Bus Boycott

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This was initiated when Rosa Parks defiantly refused to give up her seat on a bus and was arrested. In the past, African Americans were asked to sit in the back or even get off the bus when it was full. The NAACP challenged this segregation because of the huge impact they would have on the bus system. The NAACP launched the a boycott of busses with MLK Jr. as the organizer and leader. Since many African Americans didn't own a car, they would often carpool with those who did. Many of them also walked to get where they needed to (sometimes walking miles). The bus company was on the verge of bankruptcy and in 1956 the Supreme Court ruled that bus segregation was unconstitutional.

Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)/Sit-in Movement

This was a non-violent civil rights activist group of mostly young people. These people didn't have ties to many things (like school, marriages/families, or jobs) so they were willing to risk what they had. Inspired by the Montgomery Bus Boycott, this group executed drug store lunch counter sit-ins. At these lunch counters, African-Americans were to take their food to go, but this group sat at the counter to be served waiting for reactions. This was a very successful movement and eventually drug stores started to lose business because of the hostile atmosphere. In a matter of months, many of the drug store lunch counters were desegregated.

Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)/Freedom Rides

This was a non-violent group of mostly young people who wanted to desegregate bus stations. This group would purchase tickets in the north and go south where they would wait in the white waiting areas. Sometimes there were firebombings and acts of terror made on them along their way. At their end locations, white mobs usually were waiting for them to beat them up. They were taken to jail and would repeat the whole process and do it again once they were out.

March on Washington

MLK Jr. and 200,000 others marched to Washington D.C. where MLK Jr. gave his "I have a dream" speech. This speech was televised which was not very common at the time.He encouraged people to take non-violent action to end segregation. Whether people agreed with him or not, almost everyone connected to MLK Jr. in some way.

Freedom Rides

This event involved civil rights activists riding interstate buses to challenge segregation laws in the South. The Freedom Rides began in 1961 and were met with violent opposition, but helped to bring attention to the cause and ultimately led to the desegregation of interstate travel.

Freedom Summer

Event that took place in 1964 when civil rights activists went to Mississippi to register African American voters and establish freedom schools.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

Legislation signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson that outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin in employment and public accommodations.

Voting Rights Act of 1964

Legislation signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson that prohibits racial discrimination in voting, including literacy tests and poll taxes, and authorized federal oversight of election practices in states with a history of discrimination.

Malcolm X

This was a prominent African-American figure who was Muslim. He created a separatist group where white and black people should not try to come together. He thought that whites were never going to accept African-Americans and thought that it would be better to stay separated. He also said that African-Americans didn't want to be apart of white people. He emphasized black pride and not cowering in the face of oppression (fighting back if necessary); this was very appealing especially in the north because of its emphasis on empowerment. He also emphasized African-Americans helping each other out. In communities where there was unofficial segregation, African-Americans were to be in charge - not the police. He was very critical of MLK Jr. and his non-violent movement. He to a trip to Mecca in the Middle East which changed his perspective (moved away from separatism). In 1965 he was assassinated.

Black Power/Black Panthers

"Black Power" put Malcolm X's philosophy into action. It was to take care of their own, fight off oppression, and stand strong. This was very empowering (especially to African-American males. \n \n The Black Panthers were a group of African-Americans that organized themselves as a paramilitary. They didn't trust law enforcement or the government and said they would fight with resistance if they were messed with. They had marches and protests which were televised all across America. Many White people scared of this group and didn't want to get anywhere near them. They were seen as extremists and domestic terrorists by the government. This group also created the white flight phenomenon where white people moved far away out of fear.

Selma Alabama March

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A major demonstration organized for equal VOTING rights by MLK in March 1965. It is called "Bloody 

Sunday" after marchers were beat by police on the bridge at the start of the march.

Martin Luther King Jr.

Civil rights activist who advocated for racial equality through nonviolent resistance. Led the Montgomery Bus Boycott and delivered the famous "I Have a Dream" speech. Assassinated in 1968.

Sit-In Movement

A nonviolent protest tactic where African American activists sat at segregated lunch counters, refusing to leave until served. This movement helped to desegregate public spaces and challenge Jim Crow laws in the 1960s.

Civil Disobedience

Type of nonviolent protest that involves intentionally breaking laws or disobeying government orders to draw attention to an unjust policy or law.

SCLC (Southern Christian Leadership Conference)

civil rights group of mostly African American Christian ministers who worked to fight injustice through nonviolence

Little Rock Nine

Group of nine African American students who were the first to integrate Little Rock Central High School in Arkansas in 1957, facing violent opposition and federal intervention.

I Have a Dream speech

Given August 1963 from the steps of the Lincoln Memorial in Washington D.C. by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. during the March on Washington. --His dream was to have people judged on their character, NOT outer appearance (race). ---He tried to convince the president and Congress to pass Federal Civil rights law / legislation

\----He pleaded for an end of segregation and racial injustice in America

Emmet Till

A 14-year-old African American boy from Chicago who was brutally murdered in Mississippi in 1955 for allegedly whistling at a white woman. His death became a catalyst for the Civil Rights Movement.

Jim Crowe Laws

Laws in the US that enforced racial segregation and discrimination against African Americans from the late 1800s to the mid-1960s. These laws were enforced in the South and mandated separate facilities for blacks and whites, limited voting rights, and restricted access to education and employment opportunities.

De Facto Discrimination

Discrimination that occurs without intentional bias, but rather as a result of policies or practices that have a disproportionately negative effect on certain groups.

De Jure Discrimination

Systematic and legal discrimination based on race, gender, religion, or other characteristics. It is enforced by laws and policies that deny equal opportunities and treatment to certain groups.

Eugene “Bull“ Conner

Birmingham's Public Safety Commissioner and segregationist who enforced Jim Crow laws with violence. He authorized the use of police dogs and fire hoses against civil rights activists, earning him the nickname "Bull" Connor.

Apartheid

System of racial segregation and discrimination in South Africa from 1948 to 1994. It was enforced by the National Party government, which was dominated by white Afrikaners, and targeted black, colored, and Indian South Africans. Apartheid laws restricted the movement, education, and job opportunities of non-whites, and led to widespread protests and international condemnation. It was abolished following negotiations between the government and anti-apartheid activists, including Nelson Mandela.

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Nelson Mandela

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* ANC leader
* A dominant figure in the liberation movement (1948-1964)
* Helped compose the Freedom Charter
* Firm believer in a non-racial approach as his politics swung to the left
* Revitalized the party in the late 40s through his activism in the Youth League
* Lead the Defiance Campaign (1952)
* Was necessary for uniting South Africans of races through his advocacy of the COP

African National Congress (ANC)

* Forefront of black opposition to apartheid
* Aims:
* End the Apartheid regime and institute a non-racial democratic system.
* Expand membership to poorer Africans → end perception of elitist party
* Represent the interest of all Africans, especially Black
* Show the Whites that Black people were civilized and respectable
* Worthy of greater political inclusion

Coloreds

* One of the four classifications of race in South Africa during Apartheid
* Referred to those who were mixed-race
* Worked among the Congress of the People (COP) to draft the Freedom Charter and some were also a part of the ANC
* Not the leading force behind the liberation movement but were contributors nonetheless

Pan Africanist Congress (PAC)

* Sharpeville incident → independence from other groups → Emergence of the Pan Africanist Congress PAC
* Judged it could take advantage of accumulated public rage and act on its own against the past laws
* Led by Robert Sobukwe → split off of the ANC
* Impact on government:
* Unrelated to any political party → more dangerous
* Thousands of Africans joining together in a mass demonstration with no fears threatened the basis of the apartheid regime

Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK)

* Armed wing of the ANC
* Created for sabotage operations against apartheid state
* Nelson Mandela persuaded ANC leaders of MK
* Co-founded by Nelson Mandela in the wake of the Sharpeville massacre
* Mission → fight against the South African government by economically destabilizing the government (aiming to destroy expensive infrastructure)

Immorality Act

* Outlawed the procreation and sexual relations between "members of different races"
* Influenced the lives of the black population due to the racial segregation.
* A man would be arrested (along with his partner) if they were caught together and belonged to different races.
* Made to prevent the "degeneration" of the pure white population

National Party (NP)

Party led by DF Malan, which implemented an extreme version of racial segregation known as apartheid

Petty Apartheid

Complete domination of white over black and separation of races in all facets of society (Malan, Strijdom)

Grand Apartheid

Territorial/physical segregation of the entire nation with independent nationhood of each race as its goal (Verwoerd)

Bantustan System

Plan to give all Black people self-governing homeland → become independent from South Africa → South Africa becomes purely white

Defiance Campaign (1952)

* Coordinated nationwide campaigns and protests organized by the ANC → "civil disobedience"
* Earlier attempts failed → had to find a more effective response to the apartheid laws
* Authorities had shown no inclination to engage the ANC in dialogue
* They wanted to make the government repeal six laws

Congress of the People (COP)

* Alliance of anti-apartheid congress movements; ANC being the largest
* Goals:
* Create a singular unit front by uniting all South Africa's racial groups in the fight against apartheid
* Expand membership and social support base of ANC → involve poorer Africans
* Draft a Freedom Charter: encapsulate the political goals of the congress movements + democratic aspirations of all
* Consolidate ANC's plan with the involvement of other parties and racial groups → avoid exclusion of any community

Sharpeville (1960)

* White policeman opened fire on a crowd of demonstrators
* Altered course of liberation struggle
* ANC → abandoned peaceful resistance → embraced armed struggle
* Consequences:
* Change in global opinion
* Country's international isolation began in earnest
* Economic sanctions were applied
* Strong pressure form independent states → SA forced out of British
* Commonwealth → became a republic in 1961

Rivonia Trial (1963)

* Named after resistance movement's "safe house" in Liliesleaf Farm
* Used by senior leaders of the ANC and SACP
* July 1963 → Liliesleaf Farm raided
* Police found "Operation Mayibuye" → Revolutionary guerilla war to be waged by MK
* October 1963 → trial began
* Accused agreed that since they considered the trial to be political, would not appeal to death penalty
* June 1964 → everyone except Lionel Bernstein were guilty of all charges → life imprisonment in Robben Island Prison
* Government officially broke ANC and MK

HF Verwoerd

Initiated Grand Apartheid in the late 1950s

Treason Trial (1956)

* Series of legal processing against the accused began → Treason Trial
* Government argued that the COP wanted to replace the National Convention (1908-1909), the body responsible for the union constitution in 1910
* The Freedom Charter was an embryonic constitutional document for a new South Africa → treason against the state
* Charges proved insubstantial
* 1961 → all the accused were absolved of treason
* 156 arrested, including Nelson Mandela

Pass Laws Act

* The Natives Act of 1952
* Enforced segregation
* Changed passes to more official documents → 96 pages
* Controlled black people, such as if they are traveling, changing jobs, etc
* It was a criminal offense if black people did not carry their pass books to get identified by the police
* Any white person could ask to view a black person's pass

Bantu Education Act

* Made it impossible for schools to admit students of multiple racial groups
* Education of Africans under direct control of the government
* Content adjusted depending on authorities' decision on the necessity of intellectual capacities → blacks received inferior one
* Insufficient academic equipments for blacks and no professional qualification
* Foster a sense of tribal identity → separate tribal development

Sophiatown

* Predominantly black neighborhood located west of the city of Johannesburg
* Apartheid anomaly
* Obvious Target:
* Packed with illegal drinking establishments and music halls
* Creative and cultural hub
* Centre of intellectual and political activity (ANC frequently held meetings and rallies there, many anti-apartheid activists)
* January 1955 → initiation of Western Removal Scheme
* Sophiatown was razed to the ground

Freedom Charter

* Statement of core principles of the South African Congress Alliance
* Consisted of the ANC and its allies → the South African Indian Congress, the South African Congress of Democrats, and the Coloured People's Congress
* Proclaimed ''South Africa belongs to all who live in it" and that "all shall be equal before the law"
* Changed criminal justice system and encompassed a lot of communists beliefs → indirectly condemned the minority white rule of South Africa

Alexandra Bus Boycott (1957)

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* Triggered by bus raise from 4 to 5 pence
* Resulted in hundreds of thousands involved in the boycott
* First time of widespread and sympathetic coverage in white media
* Example of non-violent protest

United Party

* The leading political party before the 1948 elections (from which the National Party took power)
* Were also white supremacists, did not extend their actions to the extent of Apartheid
* Lost the 1948 election due to their association with the Great Depression and their pro-British stance in WWII (the National Party was in favor of the Germans and their policies of racial cleansing)

SACP

* South African Communist Party
* Opposition to the National Party, yet never gained mass sympathy or power due to its repression and the population's disdain towards Communist ideals;
* Were a part of the COP, views influenced some of the clauses on the Freedom Charter -> made the government and population more critical and less persuaded by it;
* Others in the movement disliked them as they were "ruining" its image and was a mostly white party

Natives Land Act (1913)

* Africans prohibited from owning or renting → could only live in native reserve territory
* Areas selected soon became overcrowded and impoverished
* Africans could reside outside reserves if employed by whites

Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act

* Illegal for whites to marry people of other races, together with outlawing sexual relations and procreation between different populations.
* If suspected → police would burst into the house to catch the couple
* If successful → blacks convicted of miscegenation would get harsher punishments than their white partners

Social Darwinism

* The belief that only the fittest survive in human political and economic struggle.
* Apartheid similar to social Darwinist philosophies

Chief Albert Luthuli

* President-general of the ANC from 1952 until his death in 1967
* Non-violence was the only viable strategy in opposing apartheid → highlight the moral injustice
* One of the key organizers of the Defiance Campaign
* First global icon of the South African liberation movement
* Formulated the overall strategy of the movement

Baasskap

* Afrikaans term used during Apartheid by white South Africans that described their social, political, and economic domination of the country
* Equated to white-supremacy → those who held this ideal supported racial segregation in all societal spheres to promote "racial purity"

Suppression of Communism Act (1950)

Banned communism and any other political group that would bring political change through disorder

Extension of University Education Act

* Brought to an end the allowing of a small number of universities to have students of all races registered in their courses
* Only one racial group, or racial tribe, could be admitted.
* ​​Inferior quality in non-white universities.
* Each race had its own educational facility → self-contained political and economic units for each
* Act removed one of the few areas of society that could resist apartheid attacks

Reservation of Separate Amenities Act

* Extended the rules of segregation
* Natives were now forced to use separate entrances for public places and services
* Bus stops, recreational areas, shops
* More separate areas for whites and non-whites

Group Areas Act

* City centers as whites-only residences
* Since Africans were “rural” people, the exposure to cities would result in a social order breakdown
* Friendships between whites and non-whites were hard to keep → no longer occupied the same civic spaces
* Public humiliation

Fagan Commision

After the protest, the United Party formed the Fagan Commission to discuss the issue of black migration tow white cities. The recommended relaxing Segregation Laws which made the National Party outraged.

ANC Youth League

Its foundation in 1944 with Mandela, Sisulu, Tambo, and Anton Lembede (founder) marked the rise of a new generation of leadership of South Africa's black African population. By end of 1940s, youth league had taken over the ANC because of a generational shift. Supported nonviolent protest and civil disobedience.