APUSH All Vocab

Maize (p. 8)

Maize, also known as corn, was a crucial staple crop for many Native American tribes and later European settlers in what would become the United States. Its cultivation transformed societies by providing a reliable food source and enabling the development of sedentary civilizations. Maize played a significant role in the agricultural practices of Indigenous peoples, contributing to the establishment of complex societies and trade networks.

Tenochtitlán (p. 10)

Tenochtitlán was the capital city of the Aztec Empire, located on an island in Lake Texcoco in present-day Mexico. It was one of the largest cities in the world at the time of the Spanish conquest in the 16th century. Tenochtitlán was a center of culture, politics, and trade in Mesoamerica, with impressive architecture, bustling markets, and a complex social hierarchy.

Cahokia (p. 11)

Cahokia was a pre-Columbian Native American city located near present-day Collinsville, Illinois. It was the largest and most influential urban settlement of the Mississippian culture, thriving between the 9th and 15th centuries. Cahokia was characterized by its large earthen mounds, including Monk's Mound, which served as a platform for religious, ceremonial, and administrative purposes. The city played a central role in trade networks across North America and contributed to the development of complex societies in the region.

Iroquois (p. 12)

The Iroquois, also known as the Haudenosaunee, were a confederation of Native American tribes located in the northeastern United States. Comprising the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca nations, with the addition of the Tuscarora later, the Iroquois Confederacy was a significant political and military force in colonial America. They formed a sophisticated political system known as the Grand Council, which united the member tribes for mutual defense and diplomacy.

“Christian liberty” (p. 18)

"Christian liberty" refers to the concept of religious freedom and the ability to practice one's faith without persecution, which was a fundamental principle for many European settlers who came to the Americas seeking refuge from religious oppression in their homelands. This idea, rooted in Protestant theology, influenced the founding principles of some of the earliest colonies in North America, such as the Plymouth Colony and the Massachusetts Bay Colony. It played a crucial role in shaping the religious landscape and the concept of individual rights in the colonies.

Zheng He (p. 20)

Zheng He was a Chinese mariner, explorer, and diplomat who led seven large maritime expeditions in the early 15th century, during the Ming Dynasty. His voyages took him through the Indian Ocean and along the coasts of Southeast Asia, India, the Arabian Peninsula, and East Africa. Zheng He's expeditions were remarkable for their scale and ambition, involving massive fleets of ships and thousands of crew members. His voyages were instrumental in expanding China's influence, facilitating trade, and promoting diplomatic relations with foreign powers.

Caravel (p. 20)

The caravel was a small, highly maneuverable sailing ship developed by European navigators in the 15th century. It featured a distinctive triangular sail known as a lateen sail, which allowed it to sail effectively against the wind. The caravel played a crucial role in the Age of Exploration, enabling European sailors to venture further into uncharted waters and navigate more efficiently. Its design improvements, including a deep keel and multiple masts, made it well-suited for long-distance travel and exploration.

Factories (p. 22)

In the context of early European colonization, factories were trading posts or fortified settlements established by European powers in distant lands, primarily for the purpose of conducting trade and securing access to valuable resources. These establishments served as hubs for the exchange of goods, including spices, textiles, and precious metals, between European merchants and local traders. Factories played a significant role in the expansion of global trade networks and the establishment of colonial empires in regions such as Asia, Africa, and the Americas.

Reconquista (p. 23)

The Reconquista was a centuries-long military campaign by Christian kingdoms in the Iberian Peninsula to reconquer territory from Muslim rule. Beginning in the 8th century and culminating in the late 15th century with the fall of Granada, the Reconquista reshaped the political and religious landscape of Spain and Portugal. It led to the establishment of Christian dominance in the region and set the stage for the exploration and colonization of the Americas by Spanish and Portuguese explorers.

Columbian Exchange (p. 26)

The Columbian Exchange refers to the widespread exchange of plants, animals, culture, human populations, diseases, and ideas between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres following Christopher Columbus's voyages to the Americas in 1492. This transformative process had profound and lasting effects on both sides of the Atlantic. It facilitated the global diffusion of crops, such as maize, potatoes, and tomatoes, as well as the spread of diseases, like smallpox and measles, which decimated Indigenous populations. The Columbian Exchange also facilitated cultural exchange, technological innovations, and the establishment of new trade routes, ultimately shaping the modern world.

Peninsulares (p. 29)

Peninsulares were Spanish colonists who were born on the Iberian Peninsula and held the highest social and political status in the Spanish colonies of the Americas. They often occupied positions of power within colonial administration and were granted exclusive rights and privileges by the Spanish crown. Peninsulares maintained a distinct social hierarchy, with limited opportunities for upward mobility for individuals of mixed race or Indigenous descent.

Mestizos (p. 29)

Mestizos were individuals of mixed European and Indigenous ancestry in the Spanish colonies of the Americas. They occupied an intermediate social position between Peninsulares and Indigenous peoples, often serving as a labor force in colonial society. Mestizos played a significant role in the cultural and demographic mixing that characterized Spanish America, contributing to the development of a diverse and hybridized colonial society.

Encomienda system (p. 33)

The encomienda system was a labor system established by the Spanish crown in the early colonial period, primarily in Latin America. Under this system, Spanish colonists, known as encomenderos, were granted the right to extract labor and tribute from Indigenous communities in exchange for protection and Christian instruction. However, in practice, the encomienda system often led to the exploitation and abuse of Indigenous peoples, who were forced to work under harsh conditions with little regard for their well-being.

Black Legend (p. 33)

The Black Legend was a historiographical phenomenon that emerged in the 16th century and persisted into subsequent centuries, particularly in English-speaking countries. It portrayed the Spanish Empire as exceptionally cruel, rapacious, and oppressive in its treatment of Indigenous peoples and colonized populations. The Black Legend was propagated by rival European powers, such as England and the Netherlands, to discredit Spain and justify their own colonial ambitions. While some aspects of the Black Legend were based on real atrocities committed by the Spanish, it also contained elements of exaggeration and distortion.

Pueblo Revolt (p. 37)

The Pueblo Revolt, also known as Popé's Rebellion, was a successful uprising of Pueblo Indians against Spanish colonial rule in present-day New Mexico in 1680. Led by the religious leader Popé, the revolt was a response to Spanish efforts to suppress Native American religious practices and impose their own authority. The Pueblo Revolt resulted in the expulsion of Spanish settlers from the region and a temporary restoration of Native American autonomy. It remains one of the most significant Indigenous uprisings against European colonization in North America.

Popé (p. 37)

Popé was a Pueblo religious leader who played a central role in organizing and leading the Pueblo Revolt against Spanish colonial rule in present-day New Mexico in 1680. As a spiritual leader, Popé rallied various Pueblo communities to unite against Spanish oppression and cultural suppression. His leadership and strategic planning were instrumental in the success of the revolt, which resulted in the expulsion of Spanish settlers from the region. Popé's legacy as a symbol of Indigenous resistance and resilience endures in Pueblo culture and history.

Huguenots (p. 41)

Huguenots were French Protestants who were followers of John Calvin's teachings during the 16th and 17th centuries. They faced persecution and discrimination in Catholic France, leading many to seek refuge in other countries, including the American colonies. Huguenot immigrants made significant contributions to the early colonial history of North America, particularly in regions such as South Carolina, where they established communities and played a role in shaping colonial society.

Métis (p. 44)

Métis were people of mixed European and Indigenous ancestry, particularly in the fur-trading regions of North America. Emerging primarily from unions between French Canadian fur traders and Indigenous women, Métis culture developed as a distinct blend of European and Indigenous traditions. Métis communities played a crucial role in the fur trade economy and served as intermediaries between Indigenous peoples and European traders. They developed unique cultural practices, including the Michif language, and played significant roles in the history of western Canada and the northern United States.

Patroons (p. 47)

Patroons were wealthy landowners in the Dutch colonies of North America who held large estates and controlled the labor of tenant farmers. The patroonship system was introduced by the Dutch West India Company to encourage the colonization of New Netherland (present-day New York and New Jersey). Patroons were granted extensive land grants and privileges in exchange for establishing and developing settlements in the colony. However, the system was criticized for its feudal-like structure and exploitation of tenant farmers.

Wampum (p. 47)

Wampum was a traditional form of Indigenous currency and cultural symbol used by various Native American tribes in the northeastern United States, particularly the Iroquois Confederacy and Algonquian-speaking peoples. Made from cylindrical beads crafted from clamshells or quahog shells, wampum belts and strings held significant cultural and ceremonial significance, serving as a medium of exchange, a record of agreements, and a means of communication between tribes. Wampum played a central role in diplomacy, trade, and rituals among Indigenous peoples and later became an important commodity in interactions between Indigenous peoples and European colonists.

Virginia Company (p. 54)

The Virginia Company refers to two joint-stock companies, the Virginia Company of London and the Virginia Company of Plymouth, chartered by King James I in 1606 to establish colonies in the New World. The Virginia Company of London established the Jamestown settlement in 1607, which became the first permanent English colony in North America. The company played a pivotal role in the early colonization efforts in Virginia, despite facing numerous challenges and setbacks.

Roanoke colony (p. 56)

The Roanoke colony, also known as the Lost Colony, was an early attempt by English settlers to establish a permanent settlement in North America. Founded by Sir Walter Raleigh in 1585 on Roanoke Island, off the coast of present-day North Carolina, the colony faced difficulties and ultimately disappeared under mysterious circumstances. The fate of the Roanoke colonists remains a historical mystery, with theories ranging from assimilation into Native American tribes to violent conflict or starvation.

Plantation (p. 56)

In the context of US history, a plantation refers to a large agricultural estate, typically specializing in the cultivation of cash crops such as tobacco, cotton, or sugar, using forced labor, initially indentured servants and later enslaved Africans. Plantations played a central role in the economy of the southern colonies and later the southern states, shaping social structures, labor systems, and cultural practices. The plantation system became synonymous with the institution of slavery and contributed to the economic prosperity of the American South.

A Discourse Concerning Western Planting (p. 57)

"A Discourse Concerning Western Planting" is a tract written by Richard Hakluyt in 1584, advocating for English colonization of the New World. The tract argued for the establishment of colonies in North America as a means of expanding England's power, promoting Protestantism, and generating wealth through trade and resource extraction. It influenced English colonial policy and encouraged subsequent colonization efforts in the Americas.

Enclosure movement (p. 58)

The enclosure movement refers to the process of consolidating small landholdings into larger, fenced-in estates, primarily in England during the 16th and 17th centuries. Enclosure resulted in the displacement of small farmers and rural communities, as land was enclosed for sheep grazing and commercial agriculture. The enclosure movement contributed to social and economic changes, including the rise of capitalist agriculture, rural depopulation, and the emergence of a landless laboring class, which in turn fueled migration to the American colonies.

Indentured servant (p. 60)

An indentured servant was a laborer who contracted to work for a specified period, typically four to seven years, in exchange for passage to the American colonies, food, clothing, and shelter. Indentured servitude was a common labor system in the early colonial period, particularly in the Chesapeake Bay colonies. While initially voluntary, many indentured servants faced harsh conditions and limited opportunities for advancement, leading to dissatisfaction and occasional rebellion.

John Smith (p. 63)

John Smith was an English soldier, explorer, and colonial leader who played a significant role in the establishment of the Jamestown settlement in Virginia. He is best known for his leadership of the colony during its early years, including his famous encounter with the Powhatan Confederacy and his efforts to impose discipline and order on the struggling settlement. Smith's leadership and diplomacy were instrumental in ensuring the survival of Jamestown during its formative years.

Headright system (p. 64)

The headright system was a land distribution system used in the early colonial period in Virginia and other English colonies. Under this system, land grants were awarded to individuals, known as "headrights," who paid for the passage of indentured servants or other immigrants to the colonies. The headright system encouraged immigration and the recruitment of labor for the colonies while also benefiting wealthy landowners who received large land grants.

House of Burgesses (p. 64)

The House of Burgesses was the first elected legislative assembly in the American colonies, established in Virginia in 1619. It served as a representative body for the colonists, allowing them to participate in the governance of the colony by making laws and regulations. The House of Burgesses played a crucial role in shaping colonial government and laying the foundation for representative democracy in America.

Uprising of 1622 (p. 65)

The Uprising of 1622, also known as the Powhatan Uprising, was a major conflict between English settlers and the Powhatan Confederacy in the Virginia Colony. It was initiated by Chief Opechancanough and resulted in a coordinated series of attacks on English settlements, resulting in the deaths of hundreds of colonists. The uprising dealt a significant blow to English colonial efforts in Virginia and led to increased hostilities between settlers and Native Americans.

Tobacco colony (p. 66)

A tobacco colony refers to a colony, such as Virginia, Maryland, or North Carolina, whose economy was heavily dependent on the cultivation and export of tobacco. Tobacco became a lucrative cash crop for English colonists in the Chesapeake region, driving the expansion of plantation agriculture and the demand for labor, initially through indentured servitude and later through the transatlantic slave trade. The success of tobacco cultivation shaped the social, economic, and political development of these colonies.

Dower rights (p. 67)

Dower rights refer to the legal rights of a widow to a portion of her deceased husband's property, typically one-third, for her support and maintenance. In colonial America, dower rights were part of English common law and provided some financial security for widows in the event of their husband's death. However, the extent and enforcement of dower rights varied among colonies and were influenced by local customs and legal practices.

Puritans (p. 69)

Puritans were English Protestants who sought to purify the Church of England of what they perceived as remnants of Roman Catholicism. In the early 17th century, Puritan separatists known as Pilgrims sought religious freedom and established the Plymouth Colony in present-day Massachusetts. Later waves of Puritan immigrants, known as the Great Migration, settled in Massachusetts Bay Colony and other New England colonies, where they established a society based on strict religious principles.

Moral liberty (p. 70)

Moral liberty refers to the Puritan belief in the freedom of individuals to act in accordance with God's moral laws, as interpreted by the church and community, rather than being enslaved by sinful desires. Puritans emphasized personal piety, self-discipline, and adherence to moral standards as essential for salvation and the well-being of society. Moral liberty shaped Puritan culture and governance in the New England colonies, influencing laws, customs, and social norms.

John Winthrop (p. 70)

John Winthrop was an English Puritan lawyer and one of the founders of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. He served as the colony's governor for several terms and played a central role in shaping its religious and political institutions. Winthrop is best known for his sermon "A Model of Christian Charity," in which he articulated the vision of Massachusetts as a "city upon a hill," an exemplary Christian community dedicated to moral and spiritual renewal.

Pilgrims (p. 70)

The Pilgrims were English Separatists who fled religious persecution in England and established the Plymouth Colony in present-day Massachusetts in 1620. Seeking religious freedom, the Pilgrims sailed aboard the Mayflower and signed the Mayflower Compact, an agreement to govern themselves by the rule of law and consent of the governed. The Pilgrims' arrival in America is commemorated as the first Thanksgiving, symbolizing cooperation between settlers and Native Americans.

Mayflower Compact (p. 71)

The Mayflower Compact was a legal agreement signed by the Pilgrims aboard the Mayflower in 1620 before disembarking at Plymouth Colony. It established a framework for self-government and the rule of law among the colonists, affirming their commitment to work together for the general good of the colony. The Mayflower Compact is considered one of the earliest examples of democratic governance in America and influenced the development of representative government in the colonies.

Great Migration (p. 71)

The Great Migration refers to the movement of tens of thousands of English Puritans to the Massachusetts Bay Colony and other New England colonies in the 1630s. Fleeing religious persecution and economic hardship in England, the migrants sought religious freedom and the opportunity to establish communities based on Puritan principles. The Great Migration significantly impacted the demographic, cultural, and political landscape of New England, shaping its society and institutions.

Captivity narratives (p. 81)

Captivity narratives were autobiographical accounts written by Europeans and Euro-Americans who had been captured and held captive by Indigenous peoples, particularly during the colonial period. These narratives often depicted the captives' experiences of violence, hardship, and cultural differences, serving as a means of both entertainment and propaganda. Captivity narratives played a significant role in shaping perceptions of Native Americans and justifying colonial expansion and military campaigns.

The Sovereignty and Goodness of God (p. 81)

"The Sovereignty and Goodness of God" is a captivity narrative written by Mary Rowlandson, an English colonist who was captured by Native Americans during King Philip's War in 1676. The narrative recounts Rowlandson's experiences during her captivity, including her hardships, spiritual struggles, and eventual release. "The Sovereignty and Goodness of God" became one of the most popular and influential captivity narratives of the colonial period, shaping attitudes towards Native Americans and providing insight into colonial life and religious beliefs.

Pequot War (p. 81)

The Pequot War was a conflict between English settlers and the Pequot tribe and their allies in New England in 1636-1638. It was sparked by tensions over land, trade, and competition for resources between the colonists and Native American tribes. The war culminated in the Mystic Massacre of 1637, in which English forces and their Native American allies attacked a Pequot village, resulting in the deaths of hundreds of Pequot men, women, and children. The Pequot War marked a significant turning point in relations between European settlers and Native Americans in New England.

Half-Way Covenant (p. 84)

The Half-Way Covenant was a religious and political compromise adopted by the Puritan churches in New England in the late 17th century. It allowed for the partial membership of individuals who had not experienced a full conversion experience but were baptized and demonstrated a moral lifestyle. The Half-Way Covenant aimed to maintain church membership and community cohesion in the face of declining religious fervor and increasing secularization among later generations of Puritans.

English liberty (p. 84)

English liberty refers to the traditional rights and freedoms enjoyed by English subjects, rooted in English common law and constitutional principles. English liberty included protections against arbitrary arrest, trial by jury, and representative government, as well as guarantees of property rights and freedom of speech. English colonists in America often invoked the concept of English liberty to justify resistance to perceived infringements on their rights by colonial authorities.

Act Concerning Religion (p. 88)

The Act Concerning Religion, also known as the Maryland Toleration Act, was passed by the colonial assembly of Maryland in 1649. It granted religious freedom to all Christians and protected the rights of individuals to worship according to their conscience, regardless of their denomination. The Act Concerning Religion was one of the earliest examples of religious toleration in America and served as a model for similar laws in other colonies, contributing to the development of religious pluralism and freedom in the United States.

Metacom (p. 94)

Metacom, also known as King Philip, was a Native American leader and chief of the Wampanoag tribe who led a major uprising against English settlers in New England in 1675-1676. Metacom's War, also known as King Philip's War, was sparked by tensions over land, resources, and cultural differences between Native Americans and English colonists. The conflict resulted in widespread violence, destruction, and loss of life on both sides, and it significantly altered the balance of power in New England.

King Philip’s War (p. 95)

King Philip's War, also known as Metacom's War, was a conflict between Native American tribes and English settlers in New England from 1675 to 1676. It was sparked by tensions over land, resources, and cultural differences between the two groups. The war resulted in widespread violence, destruction, and loss of life, with Native American tribes, led by Chief Metacom of the Wampanoag, launching coordinated attacks on English settlements throughout the region. King Philip's War is considered one of the deadliest conflicts in American colonial history and had lasting consequences for Native American communities and English colonization efforts.

Mercantilist system (p. 95)

The mercantilist system was an economic theory and policy framework adopted by European colonial powers, including England, in the 16th to 18th centuries. It aimed to enrich the mother country by maximizing exports, minimizing imports, and accumulating precious metals, primarily through colonial trade and exploitation of colonial resources. Under mercantilism, colonies were viewed as sources of raw materials and markets for finished goods, and colonial trade was tightly regulated to benefit the imperial power.

Navigation Acts (p. 96)

The Navigation Acts were a series of laws enacted by the English Parliament in the 17th century to regulate colonial trade and bolster England's mercantilist policies. The acts restricted colonial trade to English ships, required certain goods to be shipped to England before being exported to other countries, and imposed tariffs on certain colonial imports. The Navigation Acts were intended to ensure English dominance in colonial trade and to strengthen England's economic and military power.

Covenant Chain (p. 98)

The Covenant Chain was a series of treaties and alliances between the Iroquois Confederacy and the British colonies of New York and Virginia in the late 17th and early 18th centuries. It was based on the principles of mutual defense, trade, and diplomacy, and it played a crucial role in maintaining peace and stability in the region. The Covenant Chain allowed the British colonies to leverage the military and political strength of the Iroquois against rival Native American tribes and European powers.

Yamasee uprising (p. 99)

The Yamasee uprising was a conflict between Native American tribes and British settlers in South Carolina in 1715-1717. It was sparked by grievances over land loss, trade practices, and mistreatment of Native Americans by British traders and settlers. The uprising resulted in widespread violence, destruction, and loss of life, with Native American tribes, led by the Yamasee, launching coordinated attacks on English settlements throughout the region. The Yamasee uprising had lasting consequences for Native American-European relations in the Southeast.

Society of Friends (Quakers) (p. 100)

The Society of Friends, commonly known as Quakers, was a religious movement founded by George Fox in England in the 17th century. Quakers emphasized personal spiritual experience, equality, pacifism, and social justice. They faced persecution for their beliefs in England and immigrated to the American colonies, where they established communities based on principles of tolerance, simplicity, and nonviolence. Quakers played a significant role in the religious and social history of colonial America, advocating for peace, Native American rights, and the abolition of slavery.

Sugar (p. 103)

In the context of US history, sugar refers to the cultivation and production of sugar cane in the Caribbean colonies, particularly during the 17th and 18th centuries. Sugar became a highly profitable cash crop for European colonial powers, such as England, France, and Spain, and fueled the growth of the transatlantic slave trade. The sugar industry relied heavily on enslaved African labor and contributed to the economic prosperity of the American colonies and the rise of plantation economies.

Las Siete Partidas (p. 105)

Las Siete Partidas, or "The Seven Part Code," was a comprehensive legal code compiled in the 13th century under the direction of King Alfonso X of Castile. It served as the foundation of Spanish law and jurisprudence in the New World, including the Spanish colonies in North and South America. Las Siete Partidas covered a wide range of legal topics, including property rights, marriage, inheritance, and criminal law, and it influenced the development of legal systems in Spanish America.

Bacon’s Rebellion (p. 106)

Bacon's Rebellion was a popular uprising in colonial Virginia in 1676 led by Nathaniel Bacon, a wealthy planter. It was sparked by grievances over Native American attacks on the frontier, political corruption, and economic inequalities in the colony. Bacon and his followers, including indentured servants, small farmers, and enslaved Africans, rebelled against the colonial government and attacked Native American villages and plantations. Bacon's Rebellion was a significant challenge to colonial authority and highlighted social tensions in Virginia society.

Slave code (p. 108)

A slave code was a set of laws and regulations governing the institution of slavery in colonial America and the antebellum South. Slave codes varied by colony and state but generally restricted the rights and freedoms of enslaved Africans, defining them as property rather than persons. Slave codes regulated all aspects of slave life, including work, movement, education, marriage, and punishment, and they were designed to maintain control and discipline over enslaved populations while protecting the interests of slave owners.

Anglicanism (p. 109)

Anglicanism refers to the branch of Christianity established by the Church of England, which became the state religion of England during the Protestant Reformation. Anglicanism combines elements of Catholic tradition with Protestant theology and governance. In the American colonies, Anglicanism was the dominant religious denomination in the southern colonies, where it was supported by colonial elites and established as the official church in some colonies.

Glorious Revolution (p. 109)

The Glorious Revolution was a political upheaval in England in 1688-1689 that resulted in the overthrow of King James II and the establishment of constitutional monarchy under William III and Mary II. It was sparked by fears of Catholic absolutism and religious intolerance under James II, leading to the invitation of William of Orange, a Protestant Dutch prince, to assume the English throne. The Glorious Revolution had significant implications for the American colonies, leading to increased political and religious freedom and the assertion of parliamentary authority over the monarchy.

English Bill of Rights (p. 109)

The English Bill of Rights was a landmark constitutional document enacted by the English Parliament in 1689 following the Glorious Revolution. It established parliamentary supremacy, limited the powers of the monarchy, and affirmed fundamental rights and freedoms for English subjects. The English Bill of Rights influenced the development of constitutional government and individual liberties in both England and the American colonies, serving as a precursor to the United States Bill of Rights.

Lords of Trade (p. 110)

The Lords of Trade, also known as the Board of Trade, were a group of British government officials responsible for overseeing colonial affairs and trade regulation in the American colonies during the 17th and 18th centuries. Established in 1696, the Lords of Trade had authority over colonial administration, commerce, and economic policy, and they played a significant role in shaping colonial governance and relations between Britain and its colonies.

Dominion of New England (p. 110)

The Dominion of New England was a short-lived administrative union created by King James II in 1686, consolidating several New England colonies under a single royal governor appointed by the king. The Dominion of New England was intended to strengthen royal control over the colonies and enforce the Navigation Acts. However, it faced widespread opposition from colonists and was dissolved following the Glorious Revolution in 1689, leading to the restoration of separate colonial governments.

English Toleration Act (p. 111)

The English Toleration Act, also known as the Act of Toleration, was passed by the English Parliament in 1689 following the Glorious Revolution. It granted limited religious freedom to Protestant dissenters, including Baptists, Congregationalists, and Presbyterians, by allowing them to worship freely and hold public office, provided they affirmed certain basic tenets of Christianity. The English Toleration Act marked a significant step towards religious tolerance and pluralism in England and its colonies.

Salem witch trials (p. 112)

The Salem witch trials were a series of hearings and prosecutions in colonial Massachusetts in 1692-1693, during which more than 200 people were accused of witchcraft, and 20 were executed. The trials were sparked by the strange behavior of several girls in Salem Village, who accused others of bewitching them. The trials revealed underlying tensions in Salem society, including religious and economic rivalries, and they reflected widespread fear and paranoia about witchcraft in colonial New England.

Redemptioners (p. 116)

Redemptioners were European immigrants who agreed to work as indentured servants in the American colonies in exchange for passage to America, with the expectation of gaining their freedom after completing their term of service. Unlike traditional indentured servants, who signed contracts before leaving Europe, redemptioners made agreements with ship captains or merchants upon arrival in America. Redemptioners played a significant role in the immigration and labor history of the American colonies, particularly in the 18th century.

Walking Purchase (p. 120)

The Walking Purchase was a controversial land acquisition agreement between the Pennsylvania colony and the Delaware Native American tribe in 1737. The agreement was based on a dubious interpretation of a 1686 land deed and allowed the Pennsylvania colony to acquire a large tract of land in the Delaware River Valley. However, the terms of the Walking Purchase were manipulated by the Pennsylvania authorities, who used skilled runners to cover a much greater distance than originally agreed upon, leading to the dispossession of the Delaware tribe and sparking resentment and conflict.

Backcountry (p. 120)

The backcountry refers to the sparsely populated and often remote frontier regions of colonial America, located beyond the established coastal settlements. It was characterized by rugged terrain, limited infrastructure, and diverse populations, including European settlers, Native Americans, and African Americans. The backcountry played a significant role in shaping colonial expansion, trade networks, and cultural exchange, and it was often a site of conflict between settlers and Indigenous peoples.

Artisans (p. 122)

Artisans were skilled craftsmen and craftswomen who produced goods by hand in colonial America, using traditional methods and tools. They included blacksmiths, carpenters, tailors, shoemakers, and other tradespeople who played essential roles in colonial economies and communities. Artisans often formed guilds or associations to regulate their trades, set standards of quality, and protect their interests. They contributed to the development of local industries and the spread of cultural and technological innovations in the colonies.

“Cousinocracy” (p. 125)

"Cousinocracy" refers to the dominance of elite families, particularly those with close familial ties, in colonial American politics and society. These families, often interconnected through marriage and inheritance, wielded significant influence over colonial governments, economic enterprises, and social institutions. "Cousinocracy" reinforced social hierarchies and perpetuated inequalities in colonial America, as power and privilege were concentrated in the hands of a select few elite families.

The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano (p. 136)

"The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano" is an autobiography written by Olaudah Equiano, a former enslaved African who became a prominent abolitionist in the late 18th century. Published in 1789, the narrative details Equiano's experiences as a slave in Africa, his journey through the Atlantic slave trade, and his eventual freedom. It played a significant role in raising awareness about the horrors of the transatlantic slave trade and the humanity of enslaved Africans, contributing to the abolitionist movement.

Atlantic slave trade (p. 137)

The Atlantic slave trade refers to the transatlantic trafficking of enslaved Africans to the Americas, primarily between the 16th and 19th centuries. It was part of a broader system of forced labor and exploitation that fueled the growth of European colonial economies in the Americas. Enslaved Africans were captured, transported across the Atlantic Ocean in horrific conditions, and sold into bondage to work on plantations, mines, and other industries. The Atlantic slave trade had profound and enduring impacts on African societies, the economies of the Americas, and the development of racial ideologies.

Middle Passage (p. 141)

The Middle Passage was the brutal journey across the Atlantic Ocean that enslaved Africans endured during the Atlantic slave trade. It was the middle leg of the triangular trade route, connecting Africa, the Americas, and Europe. Enslaved Africans were packed tightly onto slave ships, subjected to inhumane conditions, and forced to endure disease, starvation, and violence. The Middle Passage was marked by staggering levels of mortality and suffering, with millions of Africans perishing during the voyage.

“Task” system (p. 144)

The "task" system was a method of organizing labor on plantations in the American South, particularly in rice and indigo-growing regions. Under this system, enslaved Africans were assigned specific tasks or quotas to complete each day, such as planting, weeding, or harvesting crops. Once they completed their assigned tasks, they were allowed personal time for leisure, subsistence farming, or other activities. The task system provided enslaved people with some autonomy and flexibility in their work routines, compared to the more rigid gang labor system.

Creoles (p. 147)

Creoles were people of European descent born in the Americas, particularly in colonial Spanish and Portuguese territories. The term also came to refer to people of mixed European and African or Indigenous ancestry in the Caribbean and Latin America. Creoles played important roles in colonial societies as landowners, merchants, and colonial officials. They often formed distinct social and cultural identities, blending European, African, and Indigenous influences.

Gullah (p. 148)

Gullah refers to a distinct cultural and linguistic community of African Americans living in the Lowcountry region of South Carolina and Georgia, particularly on the Sea Islands. Descended from enslaved Africans brought to the area during the colonial period, Gullah people developed a unique language, Gullah, and cultural traditions that blend African, European, and Indigenous influences. Gullah culture is characterized by its vibrant oral traditions, music, cuisine, and craftsmanship.

Runaways (p. 149)

Runaways were enslaved individuals who escaped from bondage and attempted to flee to freedom. Runaways often faced tremendous risks, including capture, punishment, and even death, but many were willing to endure these dangers in pursuit of liberty. Some runaways sought refuge in maroon communities, formed by escaped slaves in remote areas, while others attempted to reach free states or territories in the North.

Stono Rebellion (p. 149)

The Stono Rebellion, also known as Cato's Rebellion, was a slave rebellion that occurred in South Carolina in 1739. It was one of the largest and most violent slave uprisings in colonial America. Enslaved Africans, led by a man named Jemmy, rose up against their enslavers, seized weapons, and marched towards Spanish Florida, where they hoped to find freedom. The rebellion was brutally suppressed by colonial militia, and many of the participants were captured and executed. The Stono Rebellion led to stricter slave codes and increased surveillance of enslaved populations in the southern colonies.

Republicanism (p. 152)

Republicanism is a political ideology based on the principles of representative government, civic virtue, and the common good. In the context of US history, republicanism influenced the political thought of the American Revolution and the founding of the United States. Republican ideals emphasized the importance of civic participation, public service, and the preservation of individual rights and liberties within a framework of democratic governance.

Virtue (p. 152)

Virtue, in the context of republicanism, refers to the moral and civic qualities necessary for the maintenance of a free and just society. Republican thinkers, such as James Madison and John Adams, believed that a virtuous citizenry was essential for the success of a republican government. Virtue encompassed qualities such as honesty, integrity, self-discipline, and public-mindedness, which were seen as crucial for the preservation of liberty and the common good.

Liberalism (p. 152)

Liberalism is a political and philosophical ideology based on the principles of individual rights, limited government, and free markets. In the context of US history, liberalism influenced the development of American political thought and institutions, particularly during the Enlightenment and the founding era. Liberal ideals, such as freedom of speech, religious liberty, and the rule of law, shaped the founding documents of the United States, including the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution.

Two Treatises of Government (p. 152)

"Two Treatises of Government" is a political treatise written by the English philosopher John Locke in 1689. In the treatise, Locke argues in favor of natural rights, including life, liberty, and property, and asserts that government exists to protect these rights. He also advocates for the consent of the governed, limited government, and the right to revolution against tyrannical rulers. Locke's ideas profoundly influenced American political thought and the principles of the American Revolution.

“Deference” (p. 155)

Deference refers to the respectful and submissive behavior shown by individuals towards those of higher social status or authority. In colonial American society, deference was a central feature of social hierarchy and interpersonal relations. It governed interactions between social classes, genders, and ethnic groups, shaping patterns of behavior, speech, and deferential gestures.

“Salutary neglect” (p. 156)

"Salutary neglect" refers to the unofficial British policy of lax enforcement of colonial trade regulations and limited interference in colonial affairs during the 17th and early 18th centuries. British authorities, preoccupied with domestic and European concerns, often turned a blind eye to colonial smuggling, piracy, and self-government. "Salutary neglect" allowed the American colonies a degree of autonomy and economic freedom, fostering economic growth, political development, and a sense of independence.

Circulating libraries (p. 158)

Circulating libraries were subscription-based libraries that allowed members to borrow books for a fee, rather than purchasing them outright. They emerged in colonial America during the 18th century and provided access to a wide range of literature, including novels, essays, and scientific treatises. Circulating libraries played a crucial role in spreading literacy, education, and Enlightenment ideas throughout colonial society, particularly among the middle class.

Freedom of expression (p. 158)

Freedom of expression is the constitutional right to express opinions, beliefs, and ideas without government interference or censorship. In the context of US history, freedom of expression is protected by the First Amendment to the Constitution, which prohibits Congress from passing laws that abridge the freedom of speech, the press, or the right to assemble peacefully. Freedom of expression is a fundamental principle of democracy and serves as a cornerstone of American civil liberties.

Freedom of the press (p. 158)

Freedom of the press is the constitutional right to publish and disseminate news, information, and opinions without government censorship or interference. It is protected by the First Amendment to the Constitution, which prohibits Congress from passing laws that abridge the freedom of the press. Freedom of the press is essential for holding government accountable, fostering public debate, and ensuring an informed citizenry in a democratic society.

Seditious libel (p. 159)

Seditious libel is the crime of publishing or disseminating statements that criticize or undermine the authority of the government or its officials, with the intent to incite rebellion or unrest. In colonial America, seditious libel laws were used to suppress dissent and criticism of colonial governments and British authorities. However, seditious libel prosecutions were often controversial and raised questions about the limits of freedom of speech and the press.

American Enlightenment (p. 160)

The American Enlightenment was a period of intellectual and cultural ferment in colonial America during the 18th century. Influenced by European Enlightenment ideals, such as reason, science, and individualism, American thinkers and writers sought to apply these principles to the challenges of colonial society. The American Enlightenment produced a diverse array of intellectual currents, including political philosophy, scientific inquiry, religious revivalism, and cultural innovation, that shaped the ideals and institutions of the new American nation.

Great Awakening (p. 161)

The Great Awakening was a religious revival movement that swept through the American colonies in the 1730s and 1740s. Led by evangelical preachers such as Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield, the Great Awakening emphasized personal conversion, emotional fervor, and individual piety. It challenged established religious authorities and promoted a more egalitarian and experiential form of Christianity. The Great Awakening had profound effects on colonial society, politics, and culture, contributing to the growth of religious pluralism, democratic participation, and social reform movements.

Presidios (p. 163)

Presidios were Spanish military forts or garrisons established in colonial America to defend strategic locations, such as ports, trade routes, and frontier settlements, against foreign incursions and Indigenous attacks. Presidios played a crucial role in securing Spanish territorial claims and maintaining control over colonial territories, particularly in the borderlands of New Spain. They often served as centers of colonial administration, commerce, and missionary activity.

Father Junípero Serra (p. 164)

Father Junípero Serra was a Spanish Franciscan friar and missionary who played a significant role in the colonization and evangelization of Alta California in the 18th century. He founded several missions along the California coast, including Mission San Diego de Alcalá, Mission San Carlos Borromeo de Carmelo, and Mission San Francisco de Asís (commonly known as Mission Dolores). Father Serra's efforts to convert Native Americans to Christianity were controversial, and his legacy is debated, with some praising his contributions to California history and others criticizing his treatment of Indigenous peoples.

“Middle ground” (p. 166)

The "middle ground" refers to a cultural and diplomatic space of negotiation and accommodation between European colonists and Indigenous peoples in colonial America. It describes the complex interactions and relationships that developed between settlers and Native Americans, particularly in borderland regions where neither side held absolute power or authority. The concept of the middle ground highlights the ways in which both groups adapted and compromised in order to coexist and pursue their interests in a changing and contested landscape.

Acadians (p. 168)

Acadians were French colonists who settled in the region of Acadia, present-day Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island, in the 17th and 18th centuries. They were descendants of French settlers who arrived in North America in the early 17th century and formed a distinct cultural and linguistic community. Acadians were known for their agricultural skills, particularly in dyke building and farming, and their resistance to British colonial authorities during periods of conflict, such as the French and Indian War.

Pontiac’s Rebellion (p. 170)

Pontiac's Rebellion was a major Native American uprising against British colonial rule in the Great Lakes region and Ohio Valley in 1763-1766. It was led by Pontiac, an Ottawa chief, and involved a coalition of Indigenous tribes, including the Ottawa, Ojibwe, Potawatomi, and others. The rebellion was sparked by grievances over British policies, including land encroachment, unfair trade practices, and mistreatment of Indigenous peoples. Pontiac's Rebellion resulted in widespread violence, including attacks on British forts and settlements, and ultimately led to the implementation of the Proclamation of 1763, which restricted colonial expansion west of the Appalachian Mountains.

Neolin (p. 170)

Neolin, also known as the Delaware Prophet, was a Native American religious leader who played a key role in inspiring resistance to British colonial rule in the Ohio Valley in the 18th century. He preached a message of cultural renewal, pan-Indian unity, and rejection of European influence. Neolin's teachings inspired Indigenous leaders, such as Pontiac, to challenge British authority and assert Indigenous sovereignty. He is considered a significant figure in Native American religious history and the resistance to European colonization.

Albany Plan of Union (p. 174)

The Albany Plan of Union was a proposal for colonial unity put forward by Benjamin Franklin at the Albany Congress in 1754. The plan called for a union of the American colonies under a single central government, with the power to levy taxes, raise armies, and regulate Indian affairs. Although the Albany Plan was not adopted by the colonial assemblies or the British government, it laid the groundwork for future discussions of colonial unity and ultimately influenced the development of the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution of the United States.

Loyal Nine (p. 184)

The Loyal Nine were a group of prominent Boston artisans and merchants who formed a secret society in the 1760s to protest British policies and assert colonial rights. They played a significant role in organizing opposition to the Stamp Act and other acts of British taxation and control. The Loyal Nine later evolved into the Sons of Liberty, a broader revolutionary organization that advocated for colonial independence.

“Virtual representation” (p. 186)

"Virtual representation" was a concept used by British politicians to argue that members of Parliament represented the interests of all British subjects, including those in the American colonies, even if they did not directly elect them. According to this theory, all British subjects were considered part of a single "body politic," and Parliament acted in the best interests of the entire empire. However, American colonists rejected the idea of virtual representation, insisting on their right to elect their own representatives to Parliament or have their own colonial assemblies.

Writs of assistance (p. 186)

Writs of assistance were legal warrants issued by British customs officials in the American colonies that granted them broad authority to search for and seize contraband goods without specifying the time, place, or scope of the search. They were used to enforce trade regulations and combat smuggling. Writs of assistance were controversial because they allowed customs officials to conduct searches without probable cause or specific suspicion, leading to accusations of abuse of power and violations of colonial rights.

Sugar Act (p. 186)

The Sugar Act of 1764, also known as the Revenue Act, was a British law that imposed new duties on imported sugar and other goods, as well as stricter enforcement measures to combat smuggling. The act aimed to raise revenue to help cover the costs of maintaining British troops in the American colonies following the French and Indian War. The Sugar Act was highly unpopular among colonists, who viewed it as a violation of their rights and an unfair burden on trade.

Committees of Correspondence (p. 189)

Committees of Correspondence were shadow governments organized by American patriots in the 1760s and 1770s to coordinate resistance to British policies and communicate with other colonies. The first committee was established in Boston in 1764, and similar committees were formed in other colonies in the years leading up to the American Revolution. Committees of Correspondence played a crucial role in disseminating information, mobilizing public opinion, and fostering colonial unity and resistance.

Sons of Liberty (p. 189)

The Sons of Liberty were a secret society and underground organization formed by American patriots in the American colonies in the 1760s to protest British policies and assert colonial rights. They were active in organizing opposition to the Stamp Act, the Sugar Act, and other acts of British taxation and control. The Sons of Liberty used tactics such as protests, boycotts, and acts of civil disobedience to challenge British authority and promote colonial independence.