history-advancements

Who were the key individuals involved in the development of penicillin?

Flemming, Florey and Chain

1) Explain Flemming's role in discovering penicillin

- When he came back from holiday he notices mould in a petri dish which he left exposed to the air which killed all the staphylococcus germs next to it

- Fleming realized the germ killing capabilities of the penicillin mould

2) When did he publish his findings? What did he call penicillin?

2) He published his finding in 1929 and called it a natural antiseptic even though we know today that it is an antibiotic

Explain the role of Howard Florey and Ernest Chain in the development of penicillin before the second world war. When did they start research? How much funding was received?

In 1938, Florey and Chain picked up Flemming's research on penicillin. They only received 25 pounds from the government for the funding which was not nearly enough to start their research properly so they received enough funding from USA for 5 years of research In 1940, they gathered enough penicillin to test it on 8 mice - large quantities were needed and it took time In 1941, penicillin was tested on a policeman, Albert Alexander (aged 43) who had developed sepsis. After receiving injections, the man began to recover until they ran out of penicillin after 5 days and the man died but they proved that there were no serious side effects and that it worked.

1) When and which governments did Florey and Chain approach to mass produce penicillin?

1) In 1941, Florey and Chain went to several British companies to get them to mass produce penicillin but they refused as they were occupied with WW2. Eventually they did so in 1943 In July 1941, Florey and Chain went to the American government and they realized the importance so they agreed to loan money to US pharmaceutical companies to mass produce penicillin

2) Name two statistics which show the mass production of penicillin taking place.

2) By 1943, the amount of soldiers treated by penicillin increased from 1000 wounded soldiers to 250,000 being treated in 1945. On 1 June 1946 penicillin became available to the public if prescribed by a doctor which helped improve public health.

What were the 3 impacts of penicillin?

It was estimated that without penicillin 15 percent more wounded British and American soldiers would have died Thousands of injured soldiers returned to service quicker with penicillin treatment It paved the way for other antibiotics like streptomycin (1944) and Mitomycin (1956) used as a chemotherapy drug to treat cancer.

Before WW2 what were the challenges with blood transfusion?

By 1939, they were rarely carried out Medical authorities realised its importance but did not know how to collect and store enough blood How could they administer it quickly enough to those who need it

What 3 factors during WW2 lead to more collection of blood to carry out more blood transfusions?

In 1939, four blood depots were built on the outskirts of London to treat civillians The Army Blood Transfusion Service was set up at Southmead hospital Bristol Both advertised for local volunteers to donate blood The 'Blood for Victory' campaign which began in February 1944 to supply enough blood for D-day was very successful and unprecedented numbers of people donated

1) What were the disadvantages of the creation of these blood banks to collect blood from local volunteers?

1) There were problems with the system - for example, many people turned up and were unable to donate. There was still not enough blood donated to cope with the numbers who needed it.

1) How did WW2 improve further development in blood transfusions with discovery on blood plasma?

1) Research in the 1930's uncovered that blood was made out of mostly plasma which helped maintain blood pressure and volume In 1934, a patient in the USA was given the first blood transfusion with just plasma. It was successful =. It was later discovered that because plasma was made out of mostly water, it could be dried, this made it easy to transport and store as it didn't need refrigeration.

2) What was Charles Drew's contribution to it's development?

2) He developed the mass production of dried plasma

What was the significance in the discovery of blood plasma?

It saved thousands of lives of soldiers. It was easily transported to front line medical services. It was not effective as whole blood would have been but it was impossible to transport and store whole blood close to where it was needed.

What surgical developments were made during WW2?

Skin grafts

What role did skin grafts play in the treatment of injuries in WW2?

For small areas of skin that were completely missing, skin grafts were improved. Small areas of skin would be cut from one part of the body and moved to another e.g to reconstruct eyelids

How did Archibald McIndoe treat burned skin as opposed to the old technique?

Burns had been commonly treated with chemical creams that protected the area and allowed it to heal, however this was painful and caused huge harm for large areas as it would completely dry out skin. McIndoe discovered putting people in saline baths helped heal burned skin

How did McIndoe's and Harold Gillies work gain recognition?

After the Battle of Britain in 1942 they did some operations on some burned airmen at Queen Victoria hospital in front of the media. This was widely reported which helped gain recognition and improve plastic surgery in the years following the war.

1) What was the guinea pig club?

1) A group of brave WWII airmen who McIndoe used to experiment with new surgical techniques like plastic surgery.

2) How did it give psychological support to its patients?

2) It was also used to give the patients who suffered from trauma and stress psychological support by maintaining a positive environment. This was done so by patient's smoking, walking around in uniform so they got treated respectfully, as well as arranging famous people and dancers to build the patient's confidence in talking to young women again.

What was the psychological impact of the guinea pig club on it's patient's lives?

It had an important impact as it regained there confidence and prevented trauma or stress by joking about their burned limbs to make light out of the dark.

1) What changed in WW2 from WW1 that helped female doctors progress in medical education and employment?

1) By 1939, (unlike in WW1), the royal medical corps employed female doctors. They also had officer status just like men overseas. In 1918, by the end of the war, as male doctors returned females had to step aside, this did not happen anymore

2) What did the number of women training to be doctors increase to?

2) The number of women training to be doctors increased from one in ten medical students being women to 25 percent of medical students being women by the end of WW2

Which military branches could women work as doctors in?

Women's Auxiliary Air Force (WAAF), the Auxiliary Territorial Service (ATS), and the Women's Royal Naval Service (WRNS) In these branches they were involved in surgeries and medical care on the front line.

How did WW2 help nurses in medical employment?

By the mid 1930's, the RAMC began recruiting more nurses When war broke out they were sent all over the world wherever British troops were fighting From 1941, they were given military ranks equivalent to soldiers, some nurses were killed, some became POW's and other were honoured for their work

How did WW2 help medical employment for women in general?

Other women would volunteer through charities like the VAD's and provided nursing care for the military Qualified nurses tend to remain in their jobs inn Britain due to massive demand due to civilian casualties. Huge numbers of women volunteered for medical roles in Britain like ambulance driving and first aiders.

How did WW2 bring public change to Britain?

Local and National authorities were far more involved in organizing hospitals and medical care with some people getting access to free healthcare so they were fit for their roles in the war Most people aware of poverty due to mixing of soldiers in the war Great social change was promised after WW1, nothing changed so people expected it for WW2.

Who and when was William Beveridge and what was he asked to investigate?

In 1941, he was asked by the British government to investigate what measures should be in place for a better future for everyone

1) What did William Beveridge report back to the government and to the public?

1) His Beveridge report recommended huge changes, like unemployment benefit, sick pay, pension for the elderly all paid for by taxes. It recognised how ill health played a big role in keeping people poor so he recommended a national health service where everyone was entitled to free healthcare He identified the '5 Giant Evils' that kept people poor: Want, disease, ignorance, squalor and idleness.

2) How did the public respond to William Bevridge’s report?

2) His report became popularised by the public with 95 percent being heard it which pressured the government 

When was William Beveridge's report get put into action?

In 1945 when a labour/liberal government was elected as the war ended they put Beveridge's recommendations into action. On 5 July 1948, NHS began and all British citizens were entitles to free: - GP service - hospital care - surgery - maternity care - treatment by dentists or opticians And much more. 

What were the challenges that the NHS faced during its establishment?

People were quick to call the doctors, taking advantage of it 13-40 million pounds used on drugs in the first two years Budget of 200 million for NHS doubled in 5 years as doctors also took advantage by ordering stuff for themselves.

1) What was the impact of NHS on public health? How did the life expectancies increase as a result of this?

It had a huge impact on improving public health: - Many of the poorest in society had never seen a doctor before - More people sought to getting medical care earlier, therefore improving the chances of getting better In 1948, the life expectancy for men was around 66 years and for women, it was around 70 years. By the 1970s, life expectancy had increased to about 70 years for men and 75 years for women Infant mortality rates had decreased as well

How many casualties were predicted and how did this lead to the NHS?

1 million casualties were predicted in the first 2 months in war Health service was completely unequipped so 1000 operating theatres were built and thousands of war ready wards to cope with the predicted casualties Emergency Medical Service was made and treated casualties for free which led to development of NHS Air raid shelters were set up - elderly and other civllians were evacuated to safer areas e.g Essex where elderly were treated for free which led to development of NHS