Exam 2 ID Terms

Law of effect

Behavior is a function of consequences

• Strength of a behavior depends on its past effect on the environment

• Behaviors followed by favorable consequences will become more likely & behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

Primary reinforcement

• “Phylogenetically significant” events (biologically wired needs/wants)

• Innately reinforcing (not dependent on association w/ other reinforcers)

Secondary reinforcement

Conditioned reinforcers whose effectiveness is learned through previous pairings w/ primary reinforcers

• Acquired through association w/ other reinforcers

Delay to reinforcement

The time between a behavior/response and its consequence

• Shorter delays → faster learning

Establishing operations

Any procedure that increases the effectiveness of a consequence

• Increase reinforcement value

Abolishing operations

Any procedure that decreases the effectiveness of a consequence

• Decrease the reinforcement value

Drive reduction theory

A reinforcer’s effectiveness can be attributed to the reduction of a drive

• Drive: motivational state caused by a period of deprivation

• Reinforcers reduce biological drives

Premack Principle

High probability behaviors reinforce lower probability behaviors

Response deprivation theory

Behavior is reinforcing to the extent that the organism has been deprived of performing that behavior

• Any suppression of access to reinforcing behavior will empower that behavior to be an effective reinforcer

Electrical Brian Stimulation (EBS)

• Research by Olds & Milner

• Stimulated electrodes placed in mesolimbic dopamine reward circuit serve as powerful reinforcement

  • Circuit is active during natural reinforcement

Dopamine (DA) in ventral tegmental area (VTA) & nucleus accumbens (NA)

• Dopamine is the neurotransmitter released from reinforcement

  • VTA & NA make up the mesolimbic dopamine reward circuit

• Stressors can activate the same circuits as reinforcement

• Surprise also plays an important role

  • Expecting reinforcers makes them less rewarding

Postive reinforcement

The presentation of a rewarding stimulus that results in the behavior it follows being strengthened

Negative reinforcement

The removal of a aversive stimulus that results in the behavior it follows being strengthened

Positive punishment

The presentation of a aversive stimulus that results in the behavior it follows being weakened

Negative punishment

The removal of a rewarding stimulus that results in the behavior it follows being weakened

Avoidance paradox

Response prevents delivery of aversive stimulus, so behavior is reinforced by nothing

One factor theory of avoidance

Avoidance & punishment involve only operant learning

• Reduction in aversive stimulation reinforces both escape & avoidance behaviors

• Avoidance is the reinforcer

• Avoidance responses are not extinction

Two factor theory of avoidance

Avoidance & punishment involve both Pavlovian & operant learning

• CS & aversive US are paired → fear (CR) being learned

• The response removes the fear

  • Behavior supported by the removal of fear

Sidman avoidance

Even when there a a delay between a response and the delivery of a shock (NO CS) learning still occurs

• A problem w/ the 2 process theory

Shaping

The reinforcement of successive approximations of a desired behavior

• Training procedure used to establish behavior that would rarely/never occur spontaneously

Successive approximations

Small steps of active behavior being reinforced

Chaining

Establishing a series of connected/related, complex behaviors, the last of which produces reinforcement

• Each step is rewarded by the next

• Segment of chain typically must be completed in a particular order

• Can be forward (1st link to last) or backwards (last link to first, reverse order)

Superstition

Behavior that occurs repeatedly even though it does not produce the reinforcers that maintain it

• No causal connection/contingency between behavior & reinforcer

Terminal responses

Responses that occur late in the interval (right before the reinforcement)

• Usually naturalistic behaviors (instinctive drifts)

• Not always most contiguous w/ the reinforcer

Interim responses

Responses that occur early in the interval

• More idiosyncratic than terminal

Cumulative recorder

• An apparatus (or software) that records every occurrence of a behavior, thereby producing a cumulative record

• Records & graphs the the total number of responses over time

Schedules of reinforcement

Rules describing the delivery of reinforcers for a behavior

• Fixed Ratio: behavior is reinforced after the completion of a constant/fixed # of responses

• Fixed Interval: behavior reinforced following the 1st response after a constant amount of time

• Variable Ratio: behavior is reinforced after the completion of a changing (around an average) # of responses

• Variable Interval: behavior reinforced following the 1st response after a changing (around an average) amount of time

Behavioral economics (ratio strain & demand elasticity)

Behavioral economics as how much one is willing to pay (response ratio) for the reward

• Ratio strain: if the ratio gets too large (or increases too abruptly) responding can suffer (decrease/stop)

  • Being “overworked & underpaid”

• Elasticity of demand: elastic demands (luxuries) are more subject to ratio strain than inelastic demands (necessities)

Partical reinforcement effect

Tendency of behavior to be more resistant to extinction following intermittent reinforcement than continuous reinforcement

Multiple schedule

2+ schedules, each signaled by a particular stimulus, that alternate (are presented at different times)

Concurrent schedule

2+ schedules, each signaled by a particular stimulus, that are presented at the same time

Matching law

Given the opportunity to respond on 2+ reinforcement schedules, the rate of responding on each will match the reinforcement available on each schedule

Overmatching

Response proportions are more extremes (less 50/50) than predicted

• Occurs when there is a penalty for switching

Undermatching

Response proportions are less extreme (more 50/50) than predicted

• Very common deviation

• Due to difficulty discriminating between alternatives or it being too easy to switch

Bias

Consistent preference for one alternative, independent of the reward

Contingency (in relation to punishment)

Contiguity (in relation to punishment)

Intensity (in relation to punishment)

Manner of introducation (in relation to punishment)

Reinforcement (in relation to punishment)

Alternative sources of reinforcement (in relation to punishment)

Motivation operations (in relation to punishment)

Escape (in relation to punishment)

Aggression (in relation to punishment)

Behavior suppression (in relation to punishment)

Abuse (in relation to punishment)

Imitation (in relation to punishment)

DRA

DRI

DRL