Psychology of Emotion Exam 2 Study Guide

McGaugh-Cahill Film Clips

• Used “Masked” fear and happy faces

• Masking prevents images from entering explicit knowledge (unconscious – in 8/10 subjects)

• Masking: Faces- 33 ms, Mask 167 ms

• Stimuli Presentation: Participants were presented with images of faces that were either fearful, happy, or neutral. Importantly, some of the fearful faces were presented very briefly (e.g., 17 milliseconds), so that participants were likely not consciously aware of seeing them.

• Neuroimaging: Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) was used to measure brain activity in response to the facial expressions. This allowed researchers to see which areas of the brain were activated when participants viewed the images.

• Findings:

  • Amygdala Activation: The study found that even when fearful faces were presented so briefly that participants could not consciously recognize them, the amygdala still showed significant activation. This suggested that the amygdala is sensitive to emotional stimuli and can process them outside of conscious awareness.

  • Facial Expression Recognition: Participants were more likely to have a physiological response (measured through skin conductance) when they were exposed to fearful faces, even when they did not consciously recognize the faces. This indicated that the amygdala's activation plays a role in the automatic detection of fear in others.

Whalen study (use of fMRI)

First to systematically test amygdala activation for all basic facial expressions:

Fearful, disgusted, angry, sad, neutral, happy

Concluded:

• Amygdala not specialized for any specific emotion(!)

• Maybe functions to process salient facial information

K. Luan Phan’s Lab study on amygdala responses to emotional faces. (fMRI)

have more activation than the lower arousal feelings

The higher energy positive emotions, excitement, enthusiasm, laughter….

both theories depend on physiological changes, they become dependent on the functions of ANS

how ANS is important for James-Lange and Schacter & Singer theories of emotion

• sympathetic nervous system

• parasympathetic nervous system

two parts of the autonomic nervous system

sympathetic nervous systems

part of ANS, important for fight or flight response

parasympathetic nervous system

part of ANS, important for nonemergency situations, “rest or digest”

sympathetic nervous system

• prepares body for flight/fight respsonse

• increases heart rate, breathing rate

• releases energy stores from fats, livers

• shut downs digestion and reproduction

• arousal indicators (sweating, piloerectiosn)

unitary

the sympathetic nervous system tends to act as __________ response

True

SNS also active when expending bodily resources not during an emergency

parasympathetic nervous system

• activated more specifically, NOT unitary fashion

• activates digestions, reproduction, dilates body vessels in extremities

• aids in recovering from sympathetic activity

  • calms arousal; facilitates relaxation

• decreases heart rate, breathing rate

• regulate (and conserve) bodily resources

autonomic nervous system

system that plays an important role in regulating heart rate, breathing, and other functions that keep the body alive and functioning

page 235

How the sympathetic and parasympathetic system work together

James-Lange theory

a theory suggesting that physiological arousal precedes emotional experience, meaning emotions result from the interpretation of bodily reactions.

Schacter and Singer theory

a theory proposing that emotion is based on physiological arousal and cognitive labeling of that arousal, indicating that both factors contribute to the emotional experience.

Perception → Motor Reaction/Visceral Arousal → Emotional Feelings

James-Lange view of emotion

Event → ANS Arousal → Cognition → Emotion

Schater and Singer’s theory

basic/discrete emotions theory

predicts that different emotions should be associated with different profiles of activity in the organs of the body

core affect theory

emotions only vary across dimensions of valence and arousal

kama muta

a concept referring to the feeling of being moved or touched by a deep emotional experience, often associated with connection or love; a feeling of warmth or glow

undoing effect of positive emotion

the concept that positive emotions can reverse the effects of negative emotions and stress, promoting recovery and well-being; part of Barbara Fredrickson’s Broaden-and-Build theory of positive emotions

Fredrickson’s Broaden-and-Build theory

a theory that suggests positive emotions promote more diffusion attention to what is going on around us, so that we are more likely to notice opportunities in our environment, as well as greater flexibility in the actions we might use to take advantage of those opportuinties

dorsal

a term relating to the back or upper side of an organism

ventral

relating to the front or lower side of an organism

anterior

relating to the front or forward part of an organism or structure

posterior

relating to the back or rear part of an organism or structure

lateral

relating to the side of an organism or structure

medial

relating to the middle or center part of an organism or structure

axial slice

a cross-sectional view of an organism or structure that divides it into upper and lower parts; horizontal slice

coronal slice

a cross-sectional view of an organism or structure that divides it into front and back parts; vertical slice.

sagital slice

a cross-sectional view of an organism or structure that divides it into left and right parts; vertical slice.

talairach space

consists of using coordinates in three dimensions: x, y, z

brainstem

the part of the brain that connects the cerebrum with the spinal cord and controls vital functions such as breathing and heart rate.

subcortex

a region of the brain located beneath the cerebral cortex, which is the outer layer responsible for higher-level cognitive functions such as thinking, perception, and decision-making.

frontal cortex

• one of the four main lobes of the brain and is located at the front part of the cerebral cortex, just behind the forehead.

• plays a critical role in various high-level cognitive functions, including decision-making, problem-solving, planning, and social behavior

• associated with the integration of complex processes and is crucial for the regulation of emotions, attention, and actions.

“fibers of passage” problem

a challenge in identifying how neural pathways connect different brain regions and influence emotional processing. ASK

• lesions

• stimulation

• neuronal electrical activity (EEG, ERP)

• brain imaging techniques (PET, fMRI)

primary methods used for studying the brain in regards to emotion

• very invasive procedures

• lesion one part of the brain may affect a whole circuit or system

  • fibers of passage problem

• most lesions are crude and sometimes whole areas instead of structures are affected

limitations of lesion techniques

transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS)

pulsed magnetic field performed on human skills

• not perfect control

• limited depth into the brain

limitations of stimulation

• neurons fire in pulses, so the higher the electrical activity, the more firing is detected

• measures over time to calculate frequency bands

• measures event-related potentials, which tine-locked to a stimulus

electroencephalography (EEG)

• very quick timing of firing of neurons in ms but not adequate spatial resolution to localize the functions

magnetoencephalography (MEG)

• excellent temporal resolution (in ms)

• not invasive

advantages of EEG/MEG

• poor spatial resolution (depends on the # of electrodes you can fit on head)

• can only measure cortical function

  • hard to say where exact source is…

disadvantages of EEG/MEG

measure processes

brain imaging techniques are used to…

• Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

• functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

two brain imaging techinques

PET

measures increased rate of glucose utilization

fMRI

measures increased rate of oxygen consumption

• even less invasive

• high spatial resolution, also subcortical

advantages of neuroimaging

• costly

• relative low temporal resolution

• need physics and statistics to tease out effects

disadvantages of imaging

brain is made up of three layers

reptilian brain → paleomammalian/mammalian brain (limbic system) → neomammalian brain

MacLean’s Triune Brain Theory

the limbic system is where the brain produces emotion

MacLean’s view on the limbic system

controlled sensory, survival, and reflex actions

the function of the reptilian brain

complex cognition and reasoning

function of the neomammalian brain (neocortex)

brain structures that make up the limbic system ASK

Too Simple: He thinks the limbic system oversimplifies how emotions work, as they involve more complex brain processes.

Specific Pathways: Different emotions use specific brain pathways, and many areas outside the limbic system are involved.

Broader Functions: Parts of the limbic system also handle functions like memory, which can affect emotions, so they shouldn't be seen as just emotional centers.

New Discoveries: Recent research shows that many brain areas contribute to emotions, not just the limbic system.

Learning and Context: Our experiences and the situations we’re in influence our emotions, showing that learning plays a big role.

Fear Studies: LeDoux’s studies show that fear responses can happen through pathways that don’t involve the limbic system directly.

LeDoux’s objections to McLean’s Limbic system theory

Study

• removed temporal lobe of rhesus monkeys

Results

• monkeys become more docile and fearless, hypersexual, oral

• psychic blindness

• changes in behavior

• result of amygdala damage

Kluver and Bucy’s rhesus monkey experiment and results

part of the subcortex was responsible for fear

discovery about the subcortex of Kluver and Bucy

reduction of normative, adaptive fear and anxiety in response to external threat in humans

damage to the amygdala results in…

• Had trouble recognizing and generated fear

• Struggled to draw an expression of it

• fear conditioning was impaired

SM after Urbach-Wiethe disease destroyed her amygdala

• no response to the conditioned stimulus

• She did show skin conductance to the unconditioned stimulus and could understand the connected between the CS and US

SM’s fear (or lack of it) in the research she participated in

• Receives & evaluates complex info from cortex

  • Computes affective significance of stimuli

  • Classical conditioning; conditioned safety cues

lateral amygdaloid complex

• Modifies affective significance

  • Contextual Conditioning; Second-order Conditioning

basal amygdaloid complex

• Self-regulation

  • Affective significance relayed to OFC to guide behavior & decision-making

  • Facial expression processing

basolateral amygdaloid complex

• Caretaking, Sexual Behavior, Olfaction

  • Oxytocin facilitates recognition of offspring/parent

  • Oxytocin release during orgasm

  • Affects aggression

medial amygdaloid complex

• Central – Coordinates Emotional Responses

  • Autonomic regulation

  • Regulates somatic / voluntary action

  • Attention regulation

central amygdaloid complex

Once conditioned to tone:

• rats will freeze

• HR will increase

• BP will increase

• cortisol released

Lesion the amygdala

• Unable to learn pairing of tone and shock

LeDoux’s method to induce fear

• subcortical pathway

• crude but fast

LeDoux’s low road pathway

• cortical pathway

  • precise but slower

LeDoux’s “high road” pathway

emotional stimulus → sensory thalamus → sensory cortex → amygdala → emotional responses

LeDoux’s cortical pathway (high road)

danger stimulus → sensory thalamus → amgydala → fear response

LeDoux’s subcortical pathway (low road)

• fast, automatic, and reflexive pathway that allows the brain to respond to potential threats immediately, without conscious thought

• It helps trigger a quick fear response, such as freezing or fleeing

function of “low road” pathway

• slower but more detailed and involves conscious processing

• It allows the brain to assess the threat more thoroughly and make a more informed, thoughtful response.

function of “high road” pathway

LeDoux calls the amygdala the "hub in the wheel of fear" because it plays a central and crucial role in processing fear and emotional responses.

explain the LeDoux’s hub in the wheel of fear

• insular cortex

• basal ganglia

two brain areas that play important roles in processing disgust

• orbital frontal cortex (ventral-lateral PFC)

• ventral medial PFC

the two major areas of the prefrontal cortex involved with emotion

ventral medial PFC

• Heavily interconnected to hypothalamus & amygdala

• Primary sensory cortex for taste & smell

orbital frontal cortex (ventral-lateral PFC)

plays a crucial role in decision-making, emotion regulation, and reward processing.

evidence from individuals with leisons supports the PFC-emotion connection ASK

• Chief accountant

• Superior intelligence

• Married

• Role model

Patient EVR (Elliott) before their lesions

• Intelligence

  • Normal memory

  • Superior intelligence

  • Intact knowledge of complex issues

• Social / Emotional

  • Poor judgment

  • Cynical attitude

  • Inappropriate language

  • Fleeting relationships

  • Rash, impetuous decisions

  • Could not take into account negative consequences of his behavior

Patient EVR after lesions

when you make a decision, you quickly estimate the likely outcome of each option, imagine your emotional response to each outcome, and use those imagined responses to guide your choice

Damasio’s Somatic Marker Hypothesis

• The left brain is superior at language

• more involved in the experience of positive emotions, such as joy

how the left hemisphere processes emotions

• the right hemisphere is better at visuo-spatial tasks, such as facial recognition, and the perception of emotion.

• right brain more involved in the experience of negative emotions, such as fear or disgust.

how the right hemisphere processes emotions

First, are cases where the corpus callosum the link between the two hemispheres has been severed. This is sometimes done in patients with severe epilepsy to prevent the seizure activity from spreading from one hemisphere to the other. These patients are called “split brain” patients because the two hemispheres of the brain cannot communicate with each other, their brains are essentially split off from each other.  If emotional images, such as pictures are films are presented such that only one half of the brain is receiving the incoming visual information, so either only the right hemisphere can perceive the image, or only the left hemisphere, patients can only perceive the emotional significance of the image if it is presented to their right hemisphere. 

evidence for the difference in perception of emotion for the right hemisphere

• Presentation of emotional film to left hemisphere (right visual field)

  • Can verbally describe content of film

  • Unable to attach emotional significance

evidence for the perception of emotion by the left hemisphere

• Presentation of emotional film to right hemisphere (left visual field)

  • Unable to verbally describe the content of film

  • Feel appropriate emotion, able to attach emotional significance

evidence for the perception of emotion by the right hemisphere

right side of the face

when presented with chimeric or symmetrical facial expression which side of the picture do right-handed people tend to emphasize in determining what emotion is more dominant

laterality

the tendency for certain cognitive processes or functions to be more dominant in one hemisphere of the brain than the other.

• Split-brain patients

• Patients with lateralized brain damage

• Processing Asymmetrical facial expressions

• Tachistoscopic presentation of faces

findings on laterality

tachistoscope

The subjects have their heads fixed in a position so they can’t turn their heads and look straight ahead at a fixation point → the tachistoscope presents the pictures very quickly, so fast that the picture can be seen, and you can tell that it’s a face, but you can’t consciously perceive the expression→ faces with different emotional expressions are flashed in each visual field (left or right) one at a time → Subjects are then asked what emotion the expression was.

RESULTS: Subjects are much better at identifying emotional expressions presented to the left visual field, so stimuli that are processed by the right hemisphere.

• Right hemisphere dominance (again)

  • Expressions occur earlier on left side of face

  • Expressions occur stronger on left side of face

how do the two hemispheres differ in the expression of emotion

• the patients tend to exhibit what is called a “catastrophic reaction.” 

• They sometimes show extreme sadness and depression.  T

• hey are anxious, fearful, and pessimistic about the future

• And the closer to the frontal pole of the brain on the left side, so the closer to the very front of the brain the lesion occurs the more seriously depressed the person is likely to be.

results of damage of left frontal lobe

• In contrast, patients with right hemisphere lesions understand their plight. 

  • They can understand the ramifications of their brain damage, but the fail to react to the stroke or injury in what seems to be a congruent emotional manner

  • They may be indifferent about the dire straits they may be in now that they have suffered a stroke or had an accident, and sometimes they seem euphoric and joke and laugh, and seem generally unconcerned. 

results of damage of right frontal lobe

reverse inference problem

Conclusion that because a known effect of some cause is present, that specific cause must be present as well (rather than some other cause)

anterior cingulate cortex

A region of the brain involved in emotional regulation, decision-making, and impulse control

nucleus accumbens

A brain region associated with reward, pleasure, and addiction.

The amygdala plays a central role in the processing of emotional experiences and has a significant impact on the formation and recall of affective memories (memories with emotional significance)

how the amygdala might influence affective memories

refers to the idea that fear conditioning is a fundamental and adaptive form of learning that is shared across species and likely across human cultures.

universality of fear conditioning