Psych unit for topic one and two

Socialisation

The process through which individuals learn the norms, values, behaviours, roles and expectations of their society.

Primary socialisation

Occurs during early childhood within the family or primary care network. It teaches fundamental cultural norms, language, baseline values and foundational identity through intimate, high-contact emotional relationships.

Secondary socialisation

Occurs outside the home throughout later childhood and adulthood. Agents include schools, peer groups, workplaces and mass media. It teaches formal societal rules, specialised roles, social expectations and institutional norms.

Gender

The socially constructed characteristics, expectations, roles and behaviours attributed to biological sexes.

Biological theory of gender role formation

Gender roles are influenced by biological factors such as sex chromosomes, hormones and neurological structures. Inherent biological predispositions influence gendered behaviours and traits.

Social Learning Theory (Bandura)

Gender roles are acquired through observation, imitation and modelling of gender-typical models such as parents, peers and media. Behaviours are reinforced through operant conditioning, such as praise or discouragement.

Cognitive Developmental Theory (Kohlberg)

Children actively construct schemas of gender as their cognitive maturity develops through the stages of gender identity, gender stability and gender constancy.

Gender identity

The first stage of Kohlberg's cognitive developmental theory, where children recognise and label their own gender.

Gender stability

The second stage of Kohlberg's cognitive developmental theory, where children understand that gender remains stable over time.

Gender constancy

The third stage of Kohlberg's cognitive developmental theory, where children understand that gender remains constant across situations, even when appearance or behaviour changes.

Compliance

Changing public behaviour to gain rewards or avoid disapproval while privately disagreeing. It is temporary and generally lasts only while the group or monitoring source is present.

Identification

Conforming to behaviours or beliefs to maintain a valued relationship or belonging to a specific group. It is adopted publicly and semi-privately but depends on group membership.

Internalisation

Genuine acceptance of a group's beliefs or norms because they align with an individual's core values. It produces a lasting change in both public behaviour and private belief.

Status

An individual's relative social standing or perceived importance within a hierarchy. Higher status generally commands greater influence, attention and compliance.

Role

A socially defined pattern of expected behaviour associated with a particular position, such as teacher, student, guard or prisoner.

Power

The capacity to influence or control resources and interpersonal dynamics.

Reward power

Power based on the ability to provide rewards or positive outcomes.

Coercive power

Power based on the ability to punish or provide negative consequences.

Legitimate power

Power that comes from a recognised position of authority.

Referent power

Power based on identification with, admiration of or respect for another person.

Expert power

Power based on having specialised knowledge or expertise.

Informational power

Power based on possessing information that others need or value.

Effects of high power

High-power dynamics can increase assertiveness and reduce empathy.

Effects of low power

Low-power dynamics can promote submissiveness and conformity.

Conformity

Adjusting behaviour, thoughts or attitudes to match implicit or explicit group pressure.

Obedience

Direct submission to explicit commands issued by a perceived legitimate authority figure.

Descriptive norms

Perceptions of what other people actually do in a given situation. They provide a shortcut or heuristic for deciding what behaviour is normal.

Injunctive norms

Perceptions of which behaviours are approved or disapproved of by others. They represent moral or social rules.

Cialdini et al. (2006) social norms study

The study demonstrated that descriptive norms can influence behaviour. A simple sign asking visitors not to remove petrified wood resulted in less than 2% being stolen, while a sign stating that many previous visitors had removed wood resulted in 8% being taken.

Key finding of Cialdini et al. (2006)

Highlighting negative behaviour can inadvertently normalise that behaviour and increase its occurrence. Interventions are most effective when descriptive and injunctive norms are aligned.

Asch (1955) conformity study

Participants completed a line judgement task and agreed with an obviously incorrect unanimous majority on around 37% of critical trials. About 75% conformed at least once.

Conclusion of Asch's conformity study

The study demonstrated normative social influence, where people conform to fit in and avoid social rejection.

Milgram (1963) obedience study

Participants used an electric shock generator and 65% administered the maximum 450-volt shock under orders from an authority figure.

Conclusion of Milgram's obedience study

Situational pressures and legitimate authority can heavily override personal moral conscience. This is associated with the agentic state.

Agentic state

A state in which a person sees themselves as carrying out the wishes or commands of an authority figure rather than being personally responsible for their actions.

Stanford Prison Experiment (Haney, Banks & Zimbardo, 1973)

Mentally healthy participants were randomly assigned to guard or prisoner roles. Participants rapidly internalised their assigned roles.

Findings of the Stanford Prison Experiment

Guards engaged in psychological abuse and de-individuation, while prisoners became passive and distressed. The study demonstrated the influence of situational roles, status and unchecked systemic power.

Primary conclusion of the Stanford Prison Experiment

Situational demands, assigned roles and systemic power dynamics can rapidly override personal ethics and values.

Secondary socialisation example

A teenager learning informal workplace norms and professional hierarchy during their first job is an example of secondary socialisation.

Gender constancy example

A child realising that biological sex remains the same even when they wear different clothing or play with opposite-gender toys demonstrates gender constancy.

Compliance example

A person recycling at work only because their supervisor is watching and they want to avoid punishment demonstrates compliance.

Identification example

A person adopting the beliefs and lifestyle habits of a group because they value belonging and relationships with its members demonstrates identification.

Bystander intervention

The process of deciding whether and how to help when another person appears to need assistance.

Latané & Darley (1969) bystander intervention study

Participants believed they were communicating through an intercom when another participant appeared to be having a seizure. Helping behaviour decreased as the number of perceived bystanders increased.

Bystander effect

The tendency for helping behaviour to decrease when other people are present.

Key finding of Latané & Darley (1969)

Participants who believed they were alone were most likely to intervene quickly, while helping behaviour decreased as the number of perceived bystanders increased.

Diffusion of responsibility

The belief that responsibility for helping is shared among group members, reducing each individual's personal obligation to act.

Social cues in emergencies

People may look to others for cues about how to respond in an emergency, which can influence whether they intervene.

Prosocial behaviour

Behaviour intended to benefit or help another person or group.

Reciprocity principle

The tendency to help people who have previously helped us. It creates mutual support, cooperation and social relationships.

Social responsibility

The perceived obligation to help people in need, particularly vulnerable or dependent individuals. It is influenced by cultural and social norms.

Empathy

The ability to understand another person's feelings. Greater empathy increases willingness to help.

Mood and prosocial behaviour

Positive mood generally increases helping behaviour, while negative mood may motivate helping to relieve feelings such as guilt.

Competence and prosocial behaviour

Confidence in one's ability to help. Skills and experience can increase the likelihood of intervention.

Altruism

Helping another person without expecting a personal reward, motivated by concern for others.

Groupthink

The desire for harmony within a group that takes priority over critical thinking, potentially leading to poor decision making.

Diffusion of responsibility in groups

When responsibility is shared among group members, each individual feels less personal obligation to act.

Audience inhibition

Fear of embarrassment or judgement from others that can cause hesitation to intervene.

Social influence

Behaviour that is affected by the presence, actions or expectations of other people. It includes conformity, compliance and obedience.

Cost-benefit analysis

Weighing the potential costs against the potential benefits before acting. Helping is more likely when perceived benefits outweigh perceived costs.

General Aggression Model (GAM)

A model explaining aggressive behaviour through the interaction of personal and situational factors, internal states and outcomes.

GAM personal inputs

Personal factors such as beliefs, attitudes and personality that can influence aggressive behaviour.

GAM situational inputs

Situational factors such as provocation and frustration that can influence aggressive behaviour.

GAM internal state

The internal state consists of thoughts, feelings and physiological arousal.

GAM outcomes

The possible outcomes are aggressive behaviour or non-aggressive behaviour.

GAM single episode prediction

A single episode can produce an immediate aggressive response to a situation.

GAM multiple episodes prediction

Repeated aggressive thoughts and behaviours can become reinforced over time, increasing the likelihood of future aggression.

Advertising and aggression

Advertising can normalise aggressive attitudes and may portray aggression as successful.

Video games and aggression

Exposure to violent content in video games can reinforce aggressive scripts and increase aggressive thoughts and arousal.

Social media and aggression

Social media can expose people to cyberbullying, online harassment and hostile interactions. Anonymity can reduce accountability.

Biological explanation of attraction

From an evolutionary perspective, attraction is influenced by reproductive success and preferences for cues associated with health and fertility.

Buss et al. (1990)

Surveyed more than 10,000 participants across 37 cultures to investigate differences in attraction preferences.

Findings of Buss et al. (1990)

Men generally valued physical attractiveness more, while women generally valued resources and ambition more.

Significance of Buss et al. (1990)

The findings support an evolutionary explanation of attraction.

Cultural explanation of attraction

Attraction is shaped by cultural norms and values and is influenced by family, media and society. Standards of attractiveness vary across cultures.

Proximity

Physical closeness that increases opportunities for interaction and can contribute to attraction.

Mere exposure effect

The tendency for repeated exposure to a person or stimulus to increase liking or familiarity.

Reciprocity and attraction

The tendency to like people who like us.

Similarity

Shared attitudes, values and interests that can increase compatibility and attraction.

Self-disclosure

The sharing of personal information with another person, which can build trust and intimacy.

Rollie & Duck's Phase Model of Relationship Dissolution

A model describing relationship breakdown through the intrapsychic, dyadic, social, grave-dressing and resurrection phases.

Intrapsychic phase

Internal dissatisfaction occurs and a person focuses on their partner's faults.

Dyadic phase

Relationship problems are discussed openly, involving conflict and negotiation.

Social phase

Friends and family become involved and the breakup becomes public.

Grave-dressing phase

People create explanations for why the relationship failed and attempt to protect their self-esteem.

Resurrection phase

A period of personal growth in which people learn from the relationship and prepare for future relationships.

Main finding of Latané & Darley's (1969) study

People are less likely to help when other bystanders are present.

Why does helping decrease as the number of bystanders increases?

Diffusion of responsibility means each person feels less individually responsible for helping.

Example of the reciprocity principle

A student helps a friend move house because that friend previously helped them study for an exam.

Example of altruism

Helping another person without expecting a personal reward.

According to the GAM, what influences aggression?

Aggressive behaviour is influenced by both personal factors and situational factors.

How does Social Learning Theory explain gender role formation?

People learn gender roles through observation, imitation and modelling of gender-typical behaviours, which can then be reinforced through rewards or discouragement.

How does Cognitive Developmental Theory explain gender role formation?

Children actively process and construct gender schemas as they mature through the stages of gender identity, gender stability and gender constancy.

How does Biological Theory explain gender role formation?

Gender role formation is influenced by innate physiological factors such as genetics, sex chromosomes and hormones.

What are the three stages of Kohlberg's gender development theory?

Gender identity → gender stability → gender constancy.

What are the three levels of group social influence?

Compliance → identification → internalisation.

Which level of social influence is the deepest?

Internalisation is the deepest level because the individual genuinely accepts the group's beliefs and incorporates them into their own values.

What is the difference between compliance and identification?

Compliance is temporary behaviour change to gain rewards or avoid disapproval, while identification involves adopting behaviours or beliefs to maintain a valued relationship or group membership.

What is the difference between identification and internalisation?

Identification depends on maintaining a relationship or group membership, while internalisation involves genuine acceptance that continues even without the group's presence.

What is the difference between conformity and obedience?

Conformity involves adjusting behaviour or beliefs because of group pressure, while obedience involves directly following commands from a legitimate authority figure.