AP Enviormental Sciene Unit 4

Study Guide for Unit Four AP Enviormental Science!

Convergent Boundaries

Two tectonic plates move toward each other (->

Divergent Boundaries

Two tectonic plates move apart (

Seafloor Spreading

Process at divergent boundaries where magma rises between separating plates, cools, and forms new crust.

Transform Boundaries

Two tectonic plates slide past each other (🔼🔽), causing earthquakes. Example: San Andreas Fault.

Plate Tectonics Map

Used to analyze landforms and tectonic activity, helping predict natural disasters. Example: Ring of Fire.

Convergent Boundary

Two tectonic plates collide, forming mountains, volcanoes, and earthquakes.

Divergent Boundary

Two tectonic plates move apart, creating new crust as magma rises.

Earthquakes

Sudden ground shaking caused by stress release along faults in Earth's crust.

Rift Valleys

Long, narrow depressions formed when tectonic plates move apart.

Subduction

One tectonic plate moves beneath another at a convergent boundary, recycling crust into the mantle.

Transform Boundary

Tectonic plates slide past each other horizontally, causing earthquakes.

Volcanoes

Openings in Earth's crust where magma, ash, and gases erupt due to plate movement or hotspots.

Soil Formation

Process where parent material breaks down through weathering and deposition, creating soil layers that support plant growth.

Parent Material

The original rock or mineral material that breaks down to form soil.

Soil Horizons

Distinct layers in soil with different properties and nutrient levels.

O Horizon (Humus)

Topmost layer containing decomposed organic matter like leaves and plant material.

A Horizon (Topsoil)

Mixture of organic materials and minerals, essential for plant growth.

E Horizon (Eluviated)

Zone of leaching where nutrients move from upper to lower layers.

B Horizon (Subsoil)

Zone of accumulation where minerals like iron and nutrients collect.

C Horizon (Parent Material)

Layer of weathered parent material below the B horizon.

Bedrock

Solid rock beneath the soil layers and parent material.

Soil Erosion

Process where soil is displaced by wind or water, leading to loss of fertile topsoil. Example: Dust Bowl.

Water Quality

Refers to the chemical, physical, and biological characteristics of water, impacting ecosystems and human health.

Soil and Water Relationship

Soil filters water with the help of vegetation; erosion reduces filtration, leading to higher pollution.

Water-Holding Capacity

Amount of water soil can absorb, influenced by gravity, particle size, and organic matter.

Water Retention

Ability of soil to hold water in its pores rather than letting it drain too quickly. Important for farming.

Particle Size and Retention

Smaller particles retain more water; larger particles allow water to drain faster.

Loam

Ideal soil for water retention, with a balanced mix of small, medium, and large particles.

Porosity

Measure of how much empty space exists between soil particles; larger particles increase porosity.

Permeability

How easily water and nutrients move through soil; larger particles increase permeability.

Fertility

Ability of soil to support plant life based on nutrient content, organic matter, and biomatter levels.

Soil pH

Measures acidity or alkalinity of soil; affects plant growth and is influenced by pollution or acid rain.

Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)

Measure of soil's ability to retain and exchange positively charged nutrients, helping regulate soil fertility and pH.

Aeration

How well soil allows air, water, and nutrients to reach plant roots. Essential for plant growth.

Soil Compaction

Compression of soil particles, reducing pore space, aeration, and water movement.

Soil Texture Triangle

Tool used to classify soil types based on the percentage of sand, silt, and clay.

Nitrogen (N₂) 

Released into the atmosphere through denitrification (recall the nitrogen cycle!).

Oxygen (O₂) 

Released through photosynthesis from plants.

Water vapor (H₂O) 

Can be a major gas in the atmosphere; more concentrated near the equator.

Carbon dioxide (CO₂) 

A greenhouse gas that traps heat; released from burning fossil fuels.

Methane (CH₄) 

A greenhouse gas from fossil fuels, agriculture, and landfills.

Nitrous oxide (N₂O) 

A greenhouse gas from fertilizers and industry.

Ozone (O₃) 

Absorbs harmful UV radiation in the stratosphere; damaged by CFCs.

Troposphere 

Closest to Earth (0–10 km); weather occurs here; temperature decreases with altitude.

Stratosphere 

From 10 to 50 km; contains the ozone layer; temperature increases with altitude.

Mesosphere 

From 50 to 80 km; coldest layer; temperature decreases with altitude.

Thermosphere (Ionosphere) 

From 80 to 100 km; absorbs solar radiation; temperature increases with altitude.

Exosphere 

From 700 to 10,000 km; outermost layer; where auroras and satellites exist.

Aurora Borealis 

Also called the Northern Lights; caused by charged particles from the sun.

Aurora Australis 

Southern Lights; similar to Aurora Borealis but in the Southern Hemisphere.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) 

Harmful synthetic chemicals that damage the ozone layer.

Denitrification 

Bacteria convert nitrates (NO₃⁻) into nitrogen gas (N₂), releasing it into the atmosphere.

Fossil Fuels 

Coal, oil, and natural gas; burned for energy but release greenhouse gases.

Greenhouse Gases 

CO₂, CH₄, N₂O; trap heat and contribute to global warming.

Nitrogen Cycle 

The process of nitrogen moving through the environment (fixation, nitrification, assimilation, ammonification, and denitrification).

Ozone Layer 

Found in the stratosphere; absorbs UV radiation and protects Earth.

Photosynthesis 

Plants use sunlight, CO₂, and water to produce glucose and oxygen.

Solar Radiation

Uneven distribution of heat and solar radiation due to Earth's tilted axis; heat accumulates at the equator and is redistributed by circulating warm and cool air.

Hadley Cells

Convection cells between 0° and 30° latitudes where warm air rises at the equator, moves away, cools, and falls.

Ferrel Cells

Convection cells between 30° and 60° latitudes; cold, dry air from Hadley cells falls at 30° latitude, pushing warm air upward.

Polar Cells

Convection cells at latitudes greater than 60°; warm air from Ferrel cells is pushed upward, cools, and falls as dry air at the poles.

Pressure and Wind Direction

Wind flows from high-pressure to low-pressure areas; pressure differences at convection cell boundaries (e.g., between Hadley and Ferrel cells) drive winds that redistribute heat.

Coriolis Effect

The apparent deflection of moving objects due to Earth's rotation; causes winds to curve right in the Northern Hemisphere and left in the Southern Hemisphere.

Convection Cells

Circular patterns of air movement caused by uneven heating; hot air rises (low pressure) and cool air sinks (high pressure).

Coriolis effect

The deflection of moving air or water due to Earth's rotation, resulting in rightward movement in the Northern Hemisphere and leftward in the Southern Hemisphere.

Trade winds

Prevailing easterly winds blowing from east to west between 30° latitudes and the equator, historically used by sailors for trade routes.

Watershed

An area of land where all water that falls drains into a common outlet (like a river, lake, or ocean); it starts at the headwaters and is bounded by ridges or mountains.

Headwaters

The beginning of a watershed where runoff first collects to form streams.

Discharge Point

The location, usually at the lowest part of a watershed, where all the runoff converges and flows into a larger body of water.

Watershed Characteristics

Traits such as size, length, slope, soil type, and vegetation that influence the volume, speed, erosion, and filtering efficiency of runoff.

Watershed Length and Slope

The distance from the headwaters to the discharge point and the steepness of the terrain; steeper, longer watersheds lead to faster runoff.

Soil in Watershed

The soil type impacts how much runoff is absorbed and filtered; sandy or coarse soils absorb more water and support different vegetation compared to finer soils.

Water Filtration

The process of removing impurities and contaminants from water as it passes through soil and vegetation, making the water cleaner.

Solar Radiation

Energy from the sun emitted as electromagnetic waves (visible, UV, IR) that warms the Earth.

Earth's Seasons

Seasonal temperature and daylight changes caused by Earth's tilt and orbit around the sun.

Day Length Variation

Changes in the duration of daylight and darkness across seasons; longer days in summer, shorter in winter.

Latitude Effect

At the equator, solar radiation is direct and concentrated; at higher latitudes, the curvature spreads the same energy over a larger area.

Earth's Tilt

The tilt of Earth's axis causes varying sun angles throughout the year, driving seasonal temperature differences.

Equinoxes

Points in Earth's orbit when day and night are nearly equal in length; mark the start of spring and autumn.

Solstices

Points when the sun reaches its highest or lowest position at noon, resulting in the longest and shortest days of the year.

Biomes

Large-scale ecological regions defined by distinct climate, vegetation, and animal species; influenced by solar radiation and seasons.

Sun's Angle

The angle at which sunlight strikes the Earth; a higher angle in summer increases heating, while a lower angle in winter reduces it.

The Sun

Primary energy source; its variable solar radiation due to seasons and latitude greatly influences climate.

Earth's Orbit

Earth’s elliptical orbit alters the solar energy received, affecting overall climate patterns.

Greenhouse Gases

Gases like CO₂ and methane trap heat in the atmosphere, driving global warming and climate change.

Volcanoes

Large eruptions emit ash and gases that block solar radiation, temporarily cooling the Earth’s surface.

Ocean Currents

Movement of ocean water redistributes heat due to high water heat capacity, influencing regional climates.

Land Masses

Geographic features (e.g., mountains) affect climate by blocking air masses and creating rain shadow effects.

El Niño

An event where the Pacific Ocean between South America and Papua New Guinea warms due to weakened trade winds, which deepens the thermocline and leads to higher precipitation on the West Coast and colder winters in the southeastern US.

La Niña

An event where the Pacific Ocean between Papua New Guinea and South America cools because stronger trade winds push warm water away, causing upwelling of colder water and resulting in cooler, wetter conditions (with warmer, drier conditions in the southeastern US).

Greater Environmental Impacts

El Niño and La Niña events can disrupt ecosystems by altering species’ habitats and migration patterns, reducing the ocean’s heat capacity, and contributing to weather extremes like flooding or drought.

Climate Change

Long-term shifts in global temperature and weather patterns primarily driven by human activities, such as burning fossil fuels and deforestation, which increase greenhouse gas concentrations.

Drought

A prolonged period of abnormally low precipitation leading to water scarcity, dry conditions, and negative impacts on agriculture, ecosystems, and human activities.

Flooding

When excessive water from heavy rainfall, melting snow, or dam failures submerges land, causing damage to property, displacement of people and animals, and ecosystem disruption.

Migration

The movement of species or populations from one location to another, often driven by changes in environmental conditions, resource availability, or breeding needs.

Ocean Heat Capacity

The capacity of seawater to absorb and store large amounts of heat energy without a significant temperature increase, playing a crucial role in regulating Earth’s climate.

Thermocline

A layer within a body of water where temperature changes rapidly with depth, effectively separating warmer surface water from colder deep water.

Upwelling

The process where cold, nutrient-rich water rises from deeper layers to the ocean’s surface, supporting marine life and enhancing biological productivity.

What day(s) are the solstices?

une (20 or 21) and December (21 or 22).