Psychology essay

CONCEPT OF BIAS WITH RELATION TO SCHEMA

Intro

• schema theory suggests that knowledge is organized into mental frameworks that help us to process information

• Bias is a systematic deviation from objectivity

• Schema theory is relevant to biases as they influence how information is stored and retrieved

• this can lead to biased memories or interpretations

• However schemas are also useful as they help us to process information efficiently

Main argument 1

• schemas influence what information is remembered and can distort recall

• schema theory predicts that memory is reconstructive

• during encoding and retrieval people use pre existing schemas to organize info which can lead to people remembering what fits the expectation of that schema rather than what actually happened.

Study: Kulkofsky et al

• participants from diff cultures remembered the same public event differently

• cultural background influenced confidence, emotional intensity, and the details recalled

• cultural schemas influenced which details participants focused on and remembered

• this created bias as memories were shaped by cultural expectations rather than being completely accurate representations

conclusion for argument 1

• this study shows that schemas can create bias through memory recall by influencing how people reconstruct memories around expectations

Main argument 2

• schemas influence how people interpret and understand info

• schemas guide attention and interpretation

• people tend to focus on the information that already fits into pre existing beleiefs and expectations

Study: Kulkofsky et al (diff perspective)

• Participants from different cultures focused on different aspects of the same event and assigned different levels of importance to details.

• cultural schemas affected how people interpreted events and which details they considered significant, creating diff perspectives on the same event

• schemas not only influence memory but also the interpretation of experiences leading to cognitive bias

Counterarguement

• schemas allow people to understand situations, make decisions , and interpret information without having to analyze every detail from scratch

• although schemas can lead to bias they are adaptive because they reduce cognitive load and allow efficient thinking

Evaluation

• schemas may reduce accuracy in some situations but they allow for increased efficiency and help people to function effectively

• bias is often a trade off for efficient information processing

• Kulkofsky’s study has high ecological validity because it examines real world memory across multiple cultures

Conclusion

• Schema theory provides a strong explanation for bias as it shows how prior knowledge influences memory and interpretation.

• Kulkofsky et al demonstrates that cultural schemas influence what people remember and how they understand events

• However schemas are also beneficial as they make cognitive processing more efficient

• Therefore schemas are highly useful for understanding some of the origins of bias however it should be considered as a consequence of adaptive cognition and not simply an error in thinking.

CAUSALITY AND BIOLOGICAL FACTORS

Intro #2

• causality is a cause and effect relationship in which one variable directly affects the other

• biological influences are things such as hormones, neurotransmitters, and brain structures that affect cognitive processes like memory, attention, and decision making

• research often provides evidence that biological factors influence cognition, particularly through experimental studies

• However because cognition is complex and can be affected by environmental and societal influences causal relationships should be made with caution

Main argument 1

• Experimental research suggests that causal relationships between biological factors and cognition can be established to a considerable extent when biological influences are carefully controlled and manipulated.

• The stress hormone cortisol influences memory consolidation

• high cortisol can strengthen the storage of emotionally significant memories hrough interactions with the amygdala and hippocampus

Study: Cahill and McGaugh

• Participants viewed a slideshow accompanied by a narrated story.

• One group saw a neutral version of the story.

• Another group saw an emotionally arousing version

• Memory for the story was tested two weeks later.

• Researchers manipulated the emotional content of the story.

• There was a control condition (neutral story).

• The experiment was conducted under controlled laboratory conditions.

• Emotional arousal triggered biological responses involving stress hormones.

conclusion argument 1

• this study suggests that biological responses, particularly stress hormones, can directly influence memory formation

• this supports a causal relationship between biological factors and cognition

Argument 2

• Martinez and Kesner's study demonstrates that experimental manipulation of neurotransmitter activity can provide strong evidence for a causal relationship between biological factors and memory.

• Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter involved in memory formation. reduced acetylcholine activity is associated with memory deficits

Study: Martinez and Kesner (1991)

• Rats were injected with either:

• Scopolamine (blocks acetylcholine)

• physostigmine (increases acetylcholine)

• placebo

• Rats with blocked acetylcholine performed worse on memory tasks while those with increased acetylcholine performed better

Evidence for causality

• Independent variable (acetylcholine activity) was directly manipulated.

• Control group received placebo.

• Experimental controls reduced extraneous variables.

• Changes in memory occurred after the manipulation.

Conclusion for argument 2

• because neurotransmitter levels were experimentally manipulated the study provides strong evidence that acetylcholine can cause changes in memory formation

Counterclaim

• Causality is difficult to establish as it can be affected by many alternative factors ]

• such as:

• prior knowledge

• culture

• emotions

• These factors may contribute to memory performance independent of biological factors

Study: Maguire et al (2000)

• studied size/ mass of the posterior hippocampi of taxi drivers and non-taxi drivers in London

• It was found that taxi drivers had larger posterior hippocampi than non-taxi drivers

link to causality

• The findings suggests that environmental experineces may have changed brain structure

• Rather than biology causing cognition, cognition and experience may influence biology

• demonstrates a bidirectional relationship

• making simple causal claims difficult

Evaluation

• Martinez and Kresner provide strong causal evidence because neurotransmitter activity was directly manipulates under controlled conditions

• experimental design allowed researchers to isolate variables and establish cause and effect relationships

• studies such as Maguire et al. are correlational

• they demonstrate relationships between biological factors and cognition but cannot conclusively establish causation

• human cognition is influenced by biological, cognitive, and sociocultural factors that interact with one another

Conclusion

• To a moderately large extent causality can be concluded n the study of biological practices in cognitive processes

• Experimental studies that manipulate biological variables like neurotransmitters or hormones, provide strong evidence that biological factors can cause changes cognition

• however causal conclusion are limited because many studies are correlational and cognition is influenced by the interaction of biological, cognitive, and environmental factors.

• therefore while biological factors clearly play an important causal role, they should not be viewed as the sole determinants of cognitive processes