Energy Fundamentals and Hydrocarbons Review

Flashcards covering key vocabulary related to energy, its forms, laws of thermodynamics, the electricity grid, and hydrocarbons, based on lecture notes.

Potential Energy

Stored energy that is poised to be released, e.g., in a spring.

Kinetic Energy

The energy of an object in motion.

Work

The transfer of energy that occurs when a force causes displacement; calculated as force × distance (aligned with motion).

Heat

The transfer of thermal (a type of kinetic) energy between atoms within a system; measures change and is not a property of an object or system.

Vampire energy consumption

5 to 10% of the electricity used in most American homes while electronics are turned off.

Energy

Immaterial, can exist in many forms, often sensed or measured by its 'effects' during conversion, and is pervasive in the Universe.

Gravitational Potential Energy

Stored energy associated with the position of an object, relative to some reference point in a gravitational field, calculated as PE = m g h.

Joules (J)

The standard unit for energy, equal to kg m^2/s^2 or 1 N·m.

Mass-Energy Relationship

Described by the equation ΔE = Δm c^2, indicating that a small amount of mass can release a great deal of energy.

Sun

Combines Hydrogen atoms to form Helium gas by fusion, converting ~4 million tons of matter into energy each second and supplying 99.98% of energy reaching Earth.

Electromagnetic Energy (Radiation)

Fluctuating electric and magnetic fields that propagate at the speed of light, transporting energy that can be converted to other forms.

Electromagnetic Spectrum

The range of all types of electromagnetic radiation, including infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, and x-rays.

Infrared

Invisible electromagnetic waves whose absorbed energy increases the thermal energy in skin, felt as heat.

Visible (Spectrum)

The frequency range of electromagnetic waves to which the human eye is sensitive.

Ultra-Violet

Higher energy electromagnetic waves that can cause cell damage and promote tanning of skin.

X-rays

Dangerously high-energy electromagnetic waves that penetrate tissue and bone.

Kinetic Energy Formula

KE = ½mv^2, where m is mass and v is velocity, with units in Joules.

Thermal Energy (Solid State)

Characterized by atoms vibrating in all directions about their fixed equilibrium (lattice) position, constantly colliding with each other.

Thermal Energy (Liquid State)

Characterized by atoms still oscillating and colliding, but free to move, leading to a loss of the long-range order (shape) of the body.

Thermal Energy (Gas State)

Characterized by atoms having no equilibrium position or oscillations, moving freely in perpetual high-speed 'zigzag' dance punctuated by collisions, indicating high kinetic energy.

Temperature

The average kinetic energy of molecules within a material or system, representing a measurement of heat, with units of Celsius (C), Kelvin (K), or Fahrenheit (F).

Thermal Equilibrium

The state where objects are at the same temperature, resulting in no net heat flow between them.

Quantity of Heat (Q)

Kinetic energy that flows from one object to another when there is a temperature difference, calculated by Q = cmΔT.

Specific Heat (c)

A constant that depends on what the material is, representing the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 unit of mass of a substance by 1 unit temperature.

Calorie (cal)

The amount of heat that must be added to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 degree C (between 0-100 degrees C).

British Thermal Unit (BTU)

The amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 pound of water by 1 degree F, equivalent to 252 Calories.

Specific Heat Capacity

The amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 unit of mass of a substance by 1 unit temperature, varying with temperature and state.

Climate Moderator

A large body of water that, due to its high specific heat capacity, requires a lot of heat to change its temperature, thereby moderating the temperature of the surrounding air.

First Law of Thermodynamics (Conservation of Energy)

States that the total energy quantity remains constant in a closed (isolated) system, as energy cannot be created or destroyed, only converted from one form to another.

Closed System

An isolated system where energy cannot enter or exit, and the total sum of all forms of energy is always conserved when it is transformed.

Energy Conservation (Societal)

Refers to the practice of not wasting energy, distinct from the physical law of conservation of energy.

Second Law of Thermodynamics (Entropy)

States that in all energy exchanges, if no energy enters or leaves the system, the potential energy of the state will always be less than that of the initial state, implying energy waste is inevitable.

Entropy

A measure of disorder in a system, or the thermal energy per unit temperature that is unavailable for doing work; any isolated system will tend towards greater disorder.

High Quality Energy

Useful energy that is concentrated, ordered (low entropy), and possesses a high ability to do work.

Low Quality Energy

Dilute and disorganized energy with limited ability to do work, often taking the form of 'waste heat'.

Carnot Efficiency

A theoretical thermodynamic cycle that provides an upper limit on energy efficiency for a heat engine operating between two energy reservoirs.

Carnot Cycle

An ideal, reversible thermodynamic cycle that represents the most efficient engine possible, but even it can only convert some of the input heat to work.

Chemical Energy (Form)

Potential energy related to the chemical bonds between atoms.

Thermal (Heat) Energy (Form)

Kinetic energy related to the motion of atoms and molecules in materials (solids, liquids, and gases).

Mass (Nuclear) Energy (Form)

Potential energy related to the binding energy between particles in the nucleus of an atom, described by E = mc².

Electrical Energy (Form)

Kinetic energy related to the separation of electrical charge and the ensuing electrical force field.

Electromagnetic Radiation (Form)

Energy related to the fluctuating electric and magnetic fields in radiation, ranging from radio waves to gamma rays.

Power

Energy per unit time, measured in Watts (Watt = J/s).

Watt (W)

A unit of power, equal to 1 Joule per second.

Kilowatt-hour (kWh)

A unit of energy, equivalent to 3.6 × 10⁶ Joules.

Calorie (kcal)

A large unit of energy, equivalent to 4,184 Joules.

Therm

A large unit of heat energy, equal to 100,000 BTU, or approximately 1.055 × 10⁸ Joules.

Electron Volt (eV)

A very small unit of energy, equal to 1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹ Joules.

Photon/Light Energy

Energy associated with electromagnetic radiation.

Gibbs Free Energy

A thermodynamic potential that measures the 'useful' or process-initiating work obtainable from an isothermal, isobaric thermodynamic system (related to chemical energy).

Heat Capacity

The energy required per kilogram per degree Celsius to change the temperature of a substance.

Heat Engine

A system that converts thermal energy into mechanical energy, such as car engines, steam turbines, or power plants.

First Law (Heat Engine Energy Balance)

States that ΔQh = ΔQc + ΔW, where Qh is heat input, Qc is heat rejected, and W is work done.

Efficiency (Heat Engine)

The fraction of heat converted to work, calculated as ε = W/Qh = 1 – (Qc/Qh).

Carnot Efficiency Limit

The maximum theoretical efficiency for a heat engine, given by ε ≤ (Th – Tc)/Th, where temperatures are in Kelvin.

Heat Pump

A device where work input drives heat flow from a cold reservoir to a hot reservoir.

Cooling Efficiency (Heat Pump)

The ratio of heat removed from the cold reservoir to the work input, εcool = Qc/W ≤ Tc / (Th – Tc).

Heating Efficiency (Heat Pump)

The ratio of heat delivered to the hot reservoir to the work input, εheat = Qh/W ≤ Th / (Th – Tc).

Entropy Change (ΔS)

The change in entropy of a system, calculated as Q/T, where Q is heat and T is temperature; total entropy must not decrease.

Electricity Grid

One of the most complex engineering systems in the modern world, connecting power generation facilities to consumers for reliable electricity delivery.

Generators (Grid Component)

Sources of electricity on the grid, such as coal, natural gas, nuclear, hydro, wind, and solar, regulated by state Public Utility Commissions (PUCs) or Public Service Commissions (PSCs).

Public Utility Commissions (PUCs)/Public Service Commissions (PSCs)

State-level bodies that regulate electrical generators within the electricity grid.

Transmission Lines

Components of the grid that carry high-voltage electricity long distances (110 kV–765 kV) with low losses, managed by utilities or independent operators and regulated nationally by FERC.

Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC)

The national body that regulates transmission lines within the electricity grid.

Distribution Networks

Components of the grid that step down voltage for local delivery to homes, schools, and businesses, regulated at the state level.

Consumer Load

The end users’ demand for electricity, which fluctuates by hour, day, and season, and which grid operators balance with supply in real time.

DC (Direct Current)

The type of electrical current championed by Edison in the 1880s, which lost out to AC for long-distance transmission.

AC (Alternating Current)

The type of electrical current championed by Westinghouse/Tesla in the 1880s, which won out due to its advantages for long-distance transmission.

Vertically Integrated Monopolies

The structure of the electricity industry from the 1920s to 1980s, where single entities controlled generation, transmission, and distribution.

Non-Renewable Resources

Natural substances whose natural replenishment rates are slower than their rates of exploitation, such as minerals, coal, oil, and gas.

Reserves (Resource)

A legal/regulatory term for the amount of a natural resource that can be produced with known technologies under known economic conditions.

Proved Reserves

A legal definition of how much of a resource a company has that can be produced with known technologies under current economic conditions.

Hydrocarbons

Naturally-occurring compounds (H-C-O molecules) sourced from the burial of surface-derived organic matter, transformed by heat and pressure in the Earth.

Aliphatic (Hydrocarbon Compound)

A type of hydrocarbon compound made of straight-chained, branched, or cyclical compounds.

Aromatic (Hydrocarbon Compound)

A type of hydrocarbon compound containing one or more conjugated benzene rings.

Petroleum (Crude Oil)

A naturally-occurring complex mixture of hydrocarbons which may be solid, liquid, or gas, depending on its composition and confining pressure and temperature.

Natural Gas

Hydrocarbons (methane, ethane, propane, butane) that remain in the gas phase at standard temperature and pressure, found as underground reserves or associated with other fossil fuels.

Coal

A combustible, compact black or dark-brown carbonaceous rock formed from the compaction of layers of partially decomposed vegetation, graded by energy content (anthracite, bituminous, lignite, peat).

Source Rock

A rock with abundant insoluble, carbon-rich organic matter ('kerogen') that is the origin of oil and gas.

Reservoir Rock

A rock in which oil and gas accumulates, characterized by high-porosity (space between rock grains).

Permeability

The property of a rock that allows passage-ways between pores, enabling oil and gas to move through it.

Seal Rock

A rock (such as mudstone, claystone, or shale) through which oil and gas cannot move effectively, thus trapping it.

Migration Route

Pathways in porous rock through which oil and gas move from the source rock to a trap.

Trap (Oil/Gas)

The structural and stratigraphic configuration where oil and gas accumulates.

Kerogen

Abundant insoluble, carbon-rich organic matter found in source rock, which is transformed into hydrocarbons by heat and pressure.

Fossil Fuels

Energy sources formed from buried plants and animals over millennia, accounting for more than 80% of global energy today, including coal, oil, and gas.

Anthracite

The highest grade of coal, containing 86–97% carbon, providing 6–8 kcal/g, and mostly depleted in the U.S.

Bituminous

A grade of coal containing 45–86% carbon, providing 5.5–8 kcal/g.

Lignite

The lowest grade of coal mentioned, containing 25–35% carbon, providing 2.5–5 kcal/g.

Methane (CH₄)

The primary component of natural gas, used for heating, electricity, and industry, but also a potent greenhouse gas if leaked.

Combustion Reactions

Chemical reactions (e.g., C + O₂ → CO₂) that release energy, characteristic of burning fossil fuels.

Energy Independence (U.S.)

The concept that the shale oil revolution allows the U.S. to supply most of its domestic energy needs.

Shale Revolution

A period of rapid growth in U.S. oil and gas production, beginning around 2009-2015, driven by tight oil development and technological advancements.

Crude Oil Windfall Tax Credit Act (1980)

Legislation that provided tax credits to 'qualified unconventional wells' in the U.S., incentivizing their development.

Horizontal Drilling

A drilling innovation pioneered by George Mitchell of Devon Energy, allowing wells to extend horizontally into hydrocarbon-bearing formations.

Hydraulic Fracturing (Fracking)

A technique developed by George Mitchell, combined with horizontal drilling, to extract oil and gas from tight rock formations like shale.

LNG (Liquified Natural Gas)

Natural gas cooled to -260°F, reducing its volume by about 600 times for efficient shipping, storing, and transporting over large distances.

Subsidy (Energy)

Any government action that lowers the cost of fossil fuel energy production, raises the price received by producers, or lowers the price paid by consumers.

OPEC (Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries)

An organization of 12 nations (as of 2024) that accounts for 44% of global oil production and 81.5% of proven reserves, acting as a cartel to regulate market competition.

OAPEC (Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries)

An organization of Arab petroleum exporting countries that declared an oil embargo against the U.S. and other OECD nations supporting Israel in the 1973-1974 Arab-Israeli war.