psyc2009- lec 9 gender + sexuality

What is the between biological sex and gender?

Sex- Biological/physical characteristics (chromosomes, hormones, genitalia)

Gender- Socially constructed roles, behaviors, identities (masculine, feminine).What society considers appropriate for men and women

Define gender identity, gender expression and sexual orientation

• Gender Identity: Internal sense of self as male, female, or another gender (e.g., cisgender, transgender, non-binary).

• Cisgender: Gender identity matches sex assigned at birth.

• Transgender: Gender identity differs from sex assigned at birth.

• Non-binary: Gender identity that doesn't fit exclusively into male/female categories.

• Gender Expression: How one presents gender through appearance and behavior.

• Sexual Orientation: Who one is attracted to (e.g., heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual).

What are gender roles, gender role norms and gender stereotypes?

Gender roles- Patterns of behavior society deems appropriate for each gender

Gender role norms- Society’s expectations for male/female behaviour

Gender stereotypes- Overgeneralized (and often inaccurate) beliefs about all males/all females (e.g., women are communal, men are agentic).

• Communal Traits (associated with females): Emotionality, sensitivity, nurturance, connectedness.

• Agentic Traits (associated with males): Dominance, independence, assertiveness, competitiveness.

What is sexual orientation?

Emotional, romantic, or sexual attraction to others (heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual, pansexual, asexual).

What is the main idea of biological theories of gender development? What is one key piece of evidence? What do animal studies show?

A: Gender differences are influenced by innate biological factors (genes, hormones, brain structure).
Evidence: Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH) - girls exposed to excess androgens prenatally show increased preference for masculine toys

What is the gender similarities hypothesis?

• Janet Hyde's Argument: Males and females are similar on most psychological variables.

• Key Points:

  • More alike than different.

  • Between-sex differences are often small and no greater than within-sex differences.

  • Notable differences exist in some areas (e.g., physical aggression, spatial abilities, vulnerability to certain disorders), but many cognitive differences are small and can be reduced with training.

Describe biosocial theory?

Gender development results from complex interaction between:

1. Biology (chromosomes, hormones)

2. Social environment (how others react to the child’s sex)

3. The child’s own behavior and understanding

According to social learning theory, how do children learn gender roles?

Through two processes:

1. Differential Reinforcement: Being rewarded for gender-appropriate behavior and punished for cross-sex behavior.

2. Observational Learning: Watching and imitating models (parents, peers, media).

What are Kohlberg, 3 stages of cognitive gender development?

1. Gender Identity (Age 2-3): Can label self as boy/girl.

2. Gender Stability (Age 3-4): Understand gender is stable over time.

3. Gender Constancy (Age 5-7): Understand gender is consistent across situations (e.g., not changed by clothing).

How does Gender Schema Theory differ from Kohlberg's theory?

Kohlberg: Active self socialization begins only after achieving constancy (age 5-7)

Gender schema: Active self socialization begins as soon as basic identity is formed (age 2-3). Children use schemas to guide what they approach, pay attention to and remember ( (e.g., "Trucks are for boys, so I will play with trucks and remember things about them").

When does early recognition occur and what is it?

As young as 3-8 months, infants show visual preferences for gender stereotypes toys

What occurs from 18-24 months?

By 18 months, toddlers show an emerging understanding of their own gender. By 24 months, girls understand gender-stereotype associations.

When does self labelling occur?

By 2.5-3 years, most children can verbally state their gender identity ("I am a boy/girl").

During childhood (ages 4-7), children show peak rigidity in gender stereotypes. What does this mean?

They become very strict and intolerant about gender rules, believing that boys must do boy things and girls must do girl things. This rigidity decreases in later elementary school.

What is gender segregation in childhood?

A strong preference for same-sex playmates emerges by age 3 and intensifies during elementary school. 

Explain socialization pressures

• Peers: Enforce gender-typed behavior (e.g., teasing boys who play with girls).

• Teachers: May hold different expectations for boys and girls (e.g., perceiving boys as better at math), affecting children's self-concept.

• Parents: May react differently to risk-taking in sons (anger, focus on discipline) vs. daughters (disappointment, focus on safety).

Childhood sexuality

Children construct their own understanding of reproduction. Freud's Latency Stage (ages 6-puberty) suggests sexual feelings are quiet. First sexual attractions often occur around age 10.

What is Gender Intensification in adolescence?

Magnification of gender differences due to hormonal changes oof puberty and increased social pressure to conform to gender roles. Adolescents often become more stereotyped in their thinking. 

Transgender Identity Development (Bockting & Coleman's 5 Stages):

• Pre-Coming Out: Feeling different but not yet labeling it.

• Coming Out: Acknowledging transgender identity to self and others.

• Exploration: Experimenting with gender expression and roles.

• Intimacy: Developing desire for intimate relationships.

• Integration: Incorporating transgender identity into a positive, integrated self-image.

Sexual orientation in adolescence

• Becomes a central part of identity.

• Genetics play a significant role (twin and family studies show higher concordance for homosexuality in identical twins).

• Childhood Gender Nonconformity (CGN) is a strong predictor of non-heterosexual orientation, especially in men.

Sexual behavior in adolescence

• Double Standard: Persists ("he's a stud; she's a slut"), leading to more negative psychological outcomes (guilt, depression) for girls engaging in casual sex.

• Parental Monitoring: "Soft" monitoring (open communication) is more effective than "hard" control.

What is Guttman's Parental Imperative Theory?

he idea that gender roles in adulthood are shaped by the need to raise children.

• Men and women adopt more traditional roles (agentic vs. communal) during child-rearing years.

• After children are grown, roles may converge (men become more passive, women more assertive).

What is Childhood Gender Nonconformity (CGN) and what is its link to sexual orientation?

CGN is not adhering to typical gender-role norms in childhood (e.g., a boy who plays with dolls). It is a strong predictor, particularly for males, of a non-heterosexual orientation in adulthood.

What are the primary reasons for a decline in sexual activity in late adulthood?

1. Health problems, medications, and disease.

2. Lack of a partner (especially for women due to higher male mortality).

3. Negative social attitudes viewing sex in old age as inappropriate.

What did the Alexander & Hines (2002) vervet monkey study demonstrate?

Male monkeys preferred "boy" toys (e.g., car, ball) and female monkeys preferred "girl" toys (e.g., doll, pot), suggesting biological predispositions for gender-typed toy preferences that exist beyond human socialization.

What did the Morrongiello study on mothers' reactions to children's risk-taking find?

Mothers reacted differently to sons and daughters:

• Sons: Anger, focus on discipline. Attributed misbehavior to stable traits.

• Daughters: Disappointment, focus on safety. Believed they could influence daughters' future behavior.