Unit 3: Development and Learning

maturationists

emphasize the role of genetically programmed growth and development on the body, and particularly on the nervous system

maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

environmentalists (psychology)

a branch of psychology that studies the relationship between people and their environment

continuous development

the idea that changes with age occur gradually, in small increments, like that of a pine tree growing taller and taller

discontinuous development

view that development takes place in unique stages, which happen at specific times or ages

cross-sectional method

a method of research that looks at different age groups at the same time in order to understand changes that occur during the life span

longitudinal method

a type of research in which the same people are studied over a long time period

teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

FASD (fetal alcohol spectrum disorder)

encompasses a range of physical, mental, and behavioral outcomes caused by prenatal alcohol exposure

Rudimentary movements

occurs between 0-2. First stage of voluntary movement: rolling, sitting, crawling, standing, walking. When it occurs is genetic.

fundamental movement

occurs between 2-7. Child learns to manipulate body through actions such as running, jumping, throwing, catching.

specialized movement

occurs 7-14. Applies fundamental movements to a specific task- e.g. playing basketball

transitional substage

where the combination of movements occur

application substage

defined more by conscious decisions to apply these skills to specific types of activity

gender typing

the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role

gender constancy

the belief that people are permanently males or females, depending on fixed, unchangeable biological factors

Kinsey scale

0 to 6 scale of sexuality

0 being solely heterosexual

6 being exclusively homosexual

X: No socio-sexual contacts or reactions, which indicates asexuality

equilibration

the process by which children (or other people) balance assimilation and accommodation to create stable understanding

assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

accommodation

adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

Sensorimotor Stage (Piaget)

0-2. Sensations and perceptions. Master object permanence. Emphasis on the senses: touch, vision, motor (sucking and grasping)

Preoperational Stage (Piaget)

2-7. Motor skills are acquired; egocentrism is strong but begins to decline; no logical thinking yet; most rapid period of development

symbolic thinking (Piaget)

ability to pretend, play make-believe, and have an imagination

Egocentrism (Piaget)

the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view

Artificialism (Piaget)

the idea that people created the world and everything in it

Animism (Piaget)

the preoperational child's belief that inanimate objects are alive

concrete operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

Reversibility

the capacity to think through a series of steps and then mentally reverse direction, returning to the starting point

conservation

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

formal operational stage (Piaget)

12-adulthood. Children develop the ability to think logically in the abstract. They develop deductive reasoning skills and are capable of achieving post-conventional moral reasoning.

internalization

process by which a norm becomes a part of an individual's personality, thereby conditioning the individual to conform to society's expectations

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Vygotsky's concept of the difference between what a child can do alone and what that child can do with the help of a teacher

actual developmental level

upper limit of tasks that a learner can successfully perform independently

potential developmental level

The potential level of ability of which the child is capable.

phonemes

smallest unit of sound

morphemes

the smallest meaningful units of language

Syntax

Sentence structure

Semantics

the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning

Prosody

the patterns of rhythm and sound used in poetry

holophrases

one-word sentences commonly used by children under 2 years of age

overextension

the overly broad use of words, overgeneralizing their meaning

underextension

the overly restrictive use of words, common among children just mastering spoken language

telegraphic speech

early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—"go car"—using mostly nouns and verbs.

Overgeneralization

the tendency to interpret a single negative event as a never-ending pattern of defeat and failure

Ecological Systems Theory

views the person as developing within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment

Microsystem

the people and objects in an individual's immediate environment

mesosystem

provides connections across microsystems

Exosystem

social settings that a person may not experience firsthand but that still influence development

macrosystem

consists of cultural values, laws, customs, and resources

chronosystem

historical changes that influence the other systems

authoritarian parenting

style of parenting in which parent is rigid and overly strict, showing little warmth to the child

authoritative parenting

parenting style characterized by emotional warmth, high standards for behavior, explanation and consistent enforcement of rules, and inclusion of children in decision making

Generativity

the desire, in middle age, to use one's accumulated wisdom to guide future generations

Stagnation

a discontinuation of development and a desire to recapture the past

temperament

basic emotional style that appears early in development and is largely genetic in origin

Surgency

a cluster of behaviors including approach behavior, high activity, and impulsivity

negative affect

a mood dimension that consists of emotions such as nervousness, stress, and anxiety at the high end and relaxation, tranquility, and poise at the low end

strange situation

a behavioral test developed by Mary Ainsworth that is used to determine a child's attachment style

avoidant attachment

attachments marked by discomfort over, or resistance to, being close to others

ambivalent attachment

insecurely attached; upset when mother leaves and then angry with mother upon her return

disorganized attachment

a type of attachment that is marked by an infant's inconsistent reactions to the caregiver's departure and return

imaginary audience

adolescents' belief that they are the focus of everyone else's attention and concern

adolscent egocentrism

self-absorption that is characteristic of teenagers as they search for identity

adolescent identity development

shaped by perceptions of adults, influences of peers, and teens own active exploration of the world

identity achievement

Erikson's term for the attainment of identity, or the point at which a person understands who he or she is as a unique individual, in accord with past experiences and future plans

identity diffusion

the status of adolescents who consider various identity alternatives, but never commit to one or never even consider identity options in any conscious way

identity foreclosure

the status of adolescents who prematurely commit to an identity without adequately exploring alternatives

identity moratorium

exploration without having reached commitment

adult attachment

patterns of mental representation, emotion, and proximity-seeking in adults related to childhood attachment patterns

nonassoicative learning

learning about a stimulus, such as sight or sound, in the external world

Habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

Dishabituation

recovery of a habituated response after a change in stimulation

sensitization

an increase in behavioral response after exposure to a stimulus

Desensitization

reduction in emotion-related physiological reactivity in response to a stimulus

desensitization therapy

a conditioning technique designed to gradually reduce anxiety about a particular object or situation

systematic desensitization

A type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat phobias.

conditioned stimulus (CS)

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response.

unconditioned stimulus (US)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.

unconditioned response (UR)

In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

conditioned stimulus (CS)

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response.

generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

acquisition

In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

second-order conditioning

conditioning where the US is a stimulus that acquired its ability to produce learning from an earlier procedure in which it was used as a CS

contiguity approach

Neutral and the natural stimuli occurred because they are paired in the same time.

contingency approach

the idea that a behavior is influenced by its consequences, and that understanding these contingencies can help predict and control behavior

CTA (conditioned taste aversion)

if you eat food and encounter nausea, you won't eat it again

Garcia effect

taste aversion, when nausea and a food are paired, the food will be averted in the future

Operant (instrumental) Conditioning

a learning process in which the consequences of an action determine the likelihood that it will be performed in the future

Law of Effect (Thorndike)

a behavior followed by a reward is is strengthened and more likely repeated

shaping (operant conditioning)

securing desired behaviour through reinforcement of it and of behaviours leading up to it

omission training

a procedure in which reinforcement occurs when a specific behavior does not occur in a fixed period of time

punishment

an event that decreases the behavior that it follows

instictive drift

tendency for animals to return to innate behaviors following repeated reinforcement

Escape learning (negative reinforcement)

an organism acquires a response that decreases or ends some aversive stimulation

Avoidance Learning (Negative Reinforcement)

the removal of an unpleasant consequence following a desired behavior

scheduled reinforcement

different patterns of frequency and timing of reinforcement following desired behavior

continuous reinforcement schedule

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs