Caesar as popularis and dictator

Caesar's rise in cursus honourum

69- quaestor

65- aedile

63- pontfex maximus

61- governor

59- consul

- very constitutuonal rise, unlike Pomepey

- he came form a prominent, wealthy, patrician family

Motives of each individual in joining first triumvirate

= formed to counteract the hostility of optimates in the senate

1) Caesar was indebted to Crassus for funding election campaigns and also wanted support for popular reforms

2) Pompey wanted support in his requests to senate (land for veterans and treaties in East being ratified)

3) Crassus wanted support for requests that senate had rejected (compensation for tax farmers in Asia)

- both Pompey and Crassus has had dignitas offended by senate's rejection of requests

Caesar's support to Pompey evidence

- bills of lex manilia and gabinia (67/66)- Caesar only senator to support

- 59 (consulship)- main priority was assisting Pompey's veteran request

- 59- he married his daughter Julia to Pompey

Caesar's first consulship- P's veteran request

- consulship shared with optimate Bibulus (Cato's son in law)

- most pressing concern was assisting Pompey with veteran requests

-> first he brought case before senate (Cato + Os rejected it)

-> talked to assembly of people-> passed

-> in presence of people, Caesar ask Pompey if he approves and if veterans would use violence if bill opposed (both confirmed)

= clever strategy from Caesar

How did optimates reposed to Caesar's Veteran bill

- Bibulus opposed bill, gaining support of 3 tribunes, including Calvinus and Fannius

- they attempted to stop Caesar

- Cassius Dio. Roman History: "when they attempted to speak in opposition...he was thrust down the stairs...and tribunes as well"

- Bibulus stayed home for rest of his consulship

+ Caesar's violence

+ Caesar's power

+ optimate/popularis hostility

What did Bibulus claim about Caesar's laws?

He claimed (as augur) that he was "watching the skies", finding unfavourable 'signs' -> condemning Caesar's new laws as illegal

What made Caesar's measures in his consulship "illegal"?

- his use of force and failure to acknowledge Bibulus' attempts to block his legislation

- his opponents now had a legitimate excuse to threaten him with prosecution as soon as he became a private citizen and without protection of imperium

Caesar's popularis reforms during consulship (59)

- 59: brings Pompey's veteran request before senate (rejected by senate) but then passed by the assembly of the people. Bibulus attmpted to stop Caesar but was "thrust down the stairs".

- 59: also ensured ratification of Pompey’s Eastern arrangements

- 59: Campanian Law (public land divided into 20,000 and distributed into 20,000 to veterans and fathers of large urban families)

+ power of military and URBAN populace

- 59: used tribune Vatinius to ensure senate agreed to contract out the tax gathering in Asia (gained equite popularity as losses covered)

- 59 Julian Law improving lives of previously exploited provinces

Post consulship- Caesar's further legislation/popular reforms

- removal of financial benefits of nobiles (shows optimate bitterness)

- ensured ratification of P's Eastern arrangements and secured Crassus’ request for compensation for equites due to tax farming in Asia

- 65: lavish games he laid on in Rome as aedile

- 63: promotion of Rullus' land reform

- 58: Caesar's adoption of Clodius allowed his tribuneship to remove two people most hostile to popularis (Cicero and Cato).

He also backed Clodius' introduction of a free corn dole for urban masses and reintroduction of trade guilds for skilled labourers.

- 46-44 (as dictator!): implemented his building and reform policy, focused on infrastructure and civic improvements (eg: flood protection, trade benefits, road improvements)

- also established colonies in provinces (80,000 settlements for those in need)

Caesar's self ambition in political career

- Caesar's desire to help P+C could be seen as attempt to return them to their dignitas, rather than help the people

- post consulship, he succeeded in establishing himself military imperium in Gaul and Ilyrium for 5 years

- through his popular reforms he gained favour of people across contexts: from the poor to the relatively unrepresented urban masses

- 49 (Jan): Caesar crosses Rubicon river with his legion

- 48: self-proclaimed dictator (Caesar's domination over Roman politics was hard to dispute)

- FIVE CONSULSHIPS: first in 59, and then every year of dictatorship (apart from 47) until assassination (48->44)

- 45: Sole consul

- 44: 'dictator perpetuo' (he even minted coins with this title on)

= a transition from a constitutional emergency office to an unchallengeable autocracy!!

What was reason for conference at Luca (56) and what was decided?

- the power of triumvirate was beginning to be threatened due to:

- voices against legality of Caesar’s legislation in 59

- Clodius’ personal ambition and gang attacks, especially to Pompey (he retired from public life for most of 58)

etc

- Caesar arranged to meet P + C in Luca to reestablish their alliance

- Caesar was allocated imperium for further 5 years in Gaul

- Crassus for five yers in Syria

- Pompey for five years in Spain

- Pompey and Crassus to share second consulship in 55

- Pompey granted right to hold military command over Spain in absentia, ruling through his legates; he was to stay in Rome looking after interest on triumvirate

Other notable aspects of Caesar's career

- 46/post civil-war: he refilled senate to 900, naturally filling it with his own supporters

- and he increased number of magistracies annually available for election

Breakdown of the Triumvirate

- 56: conference at Luca (attempt to establish alliance after a couple years of gang warfare and tension (Clodius' ambition)

- 54: Caesar’s daughter and Pompey’s wife Julia and child die in birth

- 53: Crassus, mediator between P and C, dies on battlefield (Carrhae)

- 52: street warfare, no elections/offices of state (Clodius killed by Milo (P's gang leader)

- new bond between Pompey and senate due to marraige to daughter of Scipio (Metille family)

- Cato leads senate to elect Pompey as consul (he shares it with new elite father in law)

- 51: Caesar increasingly alienated by Rome, but Pompey does support Caesar, backing a law by tribune to allow Caesar as consulship candidate

- P secures command of Spain for 5 years, but doesn't do same for C

- 50: optimates declare C a public enemy and Curio proposes P+C give up imperium

- 49: (Jan) C crosses the Rubicon

Details on the end of Caesar's campaigning in Gaul (51-50)

- Caesar had won massive victories in Gaul, extending territory of state and increasing revenue significantly

- however, Marcellus (consul) proposed Caesar should give up imperium and someone else should take command of the province

- this was clearly a threat designed to remove state protection from Caesar and have him return to Rome, vulnerable, allowing his enemies to put him on trial for his legislation of 59 (voices about legality??!)

- Caesar found support of bankrupt tribune Curio who vetoed Marcellus’ proposal

- at same time, news came from the East that Syria was under threat and senate moved that both P+C should each send a legion out. Pompey agreed but tactically offered a legion he had ‘lent’ to Caesar; effectively Caesar was losing 2 of his legions-> weaker C’s position further

- 1 December 50: Curio proposed compromise that both P+C give up imperium; a resounding move in favour with 370 votes to 22 (shows that majority of senate were not united behind Pompey- saw him as equally responsible for rising tension)

- however, the elite group of optimates led by Cato ignored this vote and refused to allow this. They asked Pompey to defend Rome and take command of armies

- Caesar used tribune Antonius to persuade senate to accept Curio’s original compromise, but vote was refused. But Antony did manage to veto the proposal that Caesar to be made public enemy if he did not give up his armies.

- Caesar had 2 options

1. To return to Rome w/o imperium, vulnerable to prosecution

2. Return to Rome with his armies

-> he chose the latter.

Civil war

- Jan 49: C crosses rubicon

- C marches south and P flees city with senate to Dyrrachium

- C follows and loses against Pompey at Dyrrachium

- 48: C refights P at Pharsalus and wins

- P flees to Egypt but is beheaded by an envoy of Ptolemy (Egypt's ruler)-> To show support for Caesar

- with their leader dead, the republican armies are dispersed and weal

- 46: Cato commits suicide following defeat at Thaspus

Caesar as Dictator

- When he returned to Rome from Egypt, he became self-proclaimed dictator (48)

+ unlike Sulla and his horrific proscriptions, Caesar led a policy of clemency against his past enemies

+ Caesar was playing by republic rules, deciding to adopt a historically republican official title

-> it was constitutionally recognised and designed to allow him superiority, as well as protection against the tribunician veto

- 44: changed title to ‘dictator perpetuo’ (dictator forever)

-> almost a transition from an acceptable emergency office to an unchallengeable autocracy

Key reforms in Caesar's dictatorship

+ expanded senate from 600 to 900

-> reduced influence of old aristocratic families

- calendar reform: introduced Julian calendar, naming a month after himself

- minted coins, branded his face and dictator perpetuo title on them

+ wide-scale building policy

-> focused on infrastructure and civic improvements (eg: flood protection, trade benefits, road improvements)

- also established colonies in provinces (80,000 settlements for those in need)

- statement of grandeur and power??

+ established colonies in provinces (settlements for those in need and improved trade)

-> little doubt that Caesar aimed to bring peace and stability

Assassination of Caesar

March 44 - ides of march

- stabbed multiple times in broad daylight

- assassins aiming to free republic from tyranny of his dictatorship:

1) his patronage networks

2) the key offices of state he possessed

3) his adoption of dictator perpetuo

- triumph of libertas over dominato

Response by masses:

- equites, urban masses and some supporting senators received news with silence

- Cicero: congratulated the conspirators, but felt a little offended that he was no part of it/ criticised their lack of a plan

Eg: naively surprised that the restoration of libertas did not automatically bring with it the recovery of the republic (Atticus 14.4)

Who killed Caesar

Brutus and Cassius

Before Assassination- imperial nature of Caesar

Paterculus (Roman historian writing decades after the event)- "Antony had set a royal diadem on Caesar's head"

Tribunes significance/evidence

- power of tribune restored by P+C during their consulship in 70BC

- power to veto proposals of other magistrates and protect favour of army commanders

- 59: Vatinius (used by Caesar to deal with tax gathering in Asia-> gained him equity popularity-> losses covered)

- 58: Caesar adopts Clodius into plebeian class allowing tribuneship (Clodius secured exile of Cicero and extraction of Cato)

- 50: Caesar used Curio to veto Marcellus (consul) proposal of him giving up imperium

- 49: Caesar uses Antonius to try and negotiate with seamte who propose that P+C give up imperium

Caesar's relationship with Cicero

- complex relationship

Positive:

+ 59: Caesar recognises Cicero's potential power of support (persuasion and oratory skills) and offers Cicero to join his staff to act as a legate

+ Tempest scholar argument

+ Oct 48: Cicero has to wait for Caesar to permit him to return to Rome. But Caesar didnt return from Egypt until September the following year.

Eventually, Cicero received Caesar’s pardon alongside friendship (according to Plutarch).

Negative:

- 63: De Lege Agraria (against Rullus' and bill)- Cicero positions himself against Caesar

- 59: In letter to Atticus, Cicero denies Caesar's offer as he is loyal to his ideals

- 58: Cicero's exile: was seen as removing 2 of the most hostile to Caesar

- 56: Cicero's attempt to disempower C: he brought up Caesar's senatorially unpopular agrarian law (Campanian Law)

- 49: Cicero chose to follow Pompey as lesser of two evils in civil war

- 46: opposing responses to death of Cato (eulogy 'Cato' vs 'Anti-Cato')

- 44: Caesar's assassination (Cicero congratulates the assassin for what they have done for libertas)

Caesar and Cato

- Cato had been consistently hostile to Caesar-> causing most political damage

- Cato urged optimates and senate to follow Pompey against Caesar when civil war broke out in 49

SCHOLAR: Scullard- Caesar and cause of civil war

Caesar did not desire war, no did Pompey, nor the vast majority of senators

- it was the small optimate clique of 22 senators who votes against the disarmament that forced issue

For: the small optimate clique of 22 senators who votes against the disarmament that forced issue (1 Dec 50)

Against: dictator perpetuo shows his ambition and thirst for power

SCHOLAR: Scullard - first triumvirate

"The ultimate origin of the Civil War in 49"

SCHOLAR: Scullard- year of 46

A tuning point.

- Cato's suicide, rather than accepting to live under Caesar's rule

- Caesar's dominator over Roman state was hard to dispute

- growing discontent about Caesar's power

SCHOLAR: D.Shotter- Caesar's view on republic

He saw republic as a mere name without form. He felt free to do whatever he wished. Nothing 'sacred' about it, nor their inability to evolve to meet changing needs.

For: he had no intention to restore it. Was obsessed with popular reforms (eg: Campanian law 59) and using tribunes against optimates etc

Against: he claimed the cursus honorm in a very constitutional way, unlike Pompey

SCHOLAR: Shotter- reason for C's assassination

-Caesar failed to reconcile the were various interests there were in the Republic at the time

SCHOLAR: Tempest- Caesar and Cicero

Cicero did not hate the dictator as a man

He hated the fact that he had no desire to restore the republic

SCHOLAR: Forsyyth- purpose of the triumvirate

- the triumvirate existed to get Caesar into power, at first by making him consul

For:

- Caesar was consul in 59 (had man popular reforms (eg:Campanian law), he handled P's requests, etc

Against:

- all 3 individuals had motives (Pompey wanted his previously denied senatorial requests/reforms to be passed, Crassus wanted support for popular reforms and Caesar was indebted to him)

SCHOLAR: Taylor- Caesar: ambition or popularis

Caesar was a king in everything it name but did care about the people

For:

- Caesar's desire to help P+C could be seen as attempt to return them to their dignitas, rather than help the people

- 49: civil war?!

- 46 dictator and 44 dictator perpetual

Against:

- 59 Campanian law (public land divided into 20,000 and distributed to veterans and large urban families)

- post-consulship:

- Julian Law- improving lives of previously exploited provinces

- ensured ratification of taxes in East (P’s request)

- 63- promoted Rullus’ land bill

- 58- supported Clodius’ tribneship allowing intro of free corn dole for urban masses and reintroduction of trade guilds for skilled labourers

- 46-44: building and reform policy + established settlements in provinces for those in need