Anatomy and physiology exam #1

levels organization in order

\-Chemical level

\-cellular level

\-tissue level

\-organ level

\-organ system level

\-organismal level

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Chemical level (levels of organization)

atoms, molecules & organelles: atoms combine to form molecules

cellular level (levels of organization)

single cell: cells are made up of molecules

tissue level (levels of organization)

group of similar cells: tissues consist of similar types of cells

organ level (levels of organization)

contain two or more types of tissues: organs are made up of different types of tissues

organ system levels (levels of organization)

organs that work closely together: different organs that work closely together

organismal level (levels of organization)

all organ systems combined to make the whole organism: human organism is made up of many organ system

Integumentary system (body sys)

skin, hair and nail glands

protects deeper tissues from injury

Skeletal system (body sys)

\-bones, cartilage, joints, ligaments and tendons

\-protects and supports organs

\-provides framework

\-blood cells are formed within bones

\-bones store minerals

muscular system (body sys)

\-skeletal muscles

\-movement of the body

\-environment, locomotion, and facial expressions

\-maintain posture and produces heat

nervous system (body sys)

\-brain, spinal cord, and nerves

\-fast acting control sys

\-responds to internal and external changes by activating muscles and glands

endocrine system(body sys)

\-Pineal glad, pituitary glad, testis, ovary, pancreas, adrenal gland, thyroid gland

\-responsible for secreting hormones that regulate growth, development and metabolism by body cells

cardiovascular sys (body sys)

heart (pumps blood) and blood vessels (transport oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, waste etc.)

Lymphatic system/immunity (body sys)

\-red bone marrow, thymus, lymphatic vessels, thoracic duct, spleen, and lymph nodes

\-picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood

\-disposes of debris in lymphatic stream

\-houses white blood cells involved in immunity

respiratory sys(body sys)

\-nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea, lung, bronchus

\-keeps blood supplied w/ oxygen and removes carbon dioxide

digestive sys (body sys)

\-oral cavity, esophagus, liver, small intestine, rectum, anus, large intestine.

\-breaks down into absorbable units, enter the blood for distribution into body cells.

Urinary sys (body sys)

\-kidney, ureter, urinary bladder, urethra

\-eliminates nitrogenous waste from the body

\-regulates water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance of the blood

male reproductive sys (body sys)

\-prostate, penis, scrotum, ductus deferens

\-overall function of offspring

\-produce sperm and male sex hormone

female reproductive sys (body sys)

\-mammary glands (in boobs), ovary, uterine tube, uterus, vagina.

\-overall production of offspring

\-ovaries produce eggs and female sex organs

understand interrelationships between organ systems

\-each of our body sys. is interconnected and dependent on each other.

\-our heart (cardiovascular sys) does not beat unless our brain (nervous sys) tells it to.

\-our skeletal sys are dependent on our digestive sys.

survival needs

\-nutrients

\-oxygen and water

\-normal body temp

\-appropriate atmospheric temp

*too much or too little can be harmful and make cells unhappy*

homeostatic controls

\-body constantly monitored and regulated to maintain homeostasis

\*nervous = fast

\*endocrine sys = hormones and take time, mins, hours

3 components


1. receptor -where at
2. control center -alter/adjust
3. effector -change/tweak

3 controls (homeostatic controls)

1. receptor (sensor)


1. monitors environment
2. responds to stimuli
2. control center


1. determines setpoint and which variable is maintained
2. receives input from receptor
3. determines appropriate response
3. effecter (comand)


1. receives output from control center
2. provides the means to respond
3. positive and negative feedback


1. positive: rare, amplify/increase stimulus. enhances original stimulus. ex: enhance of labor contractions by oxytocin
2. negative: most used feedback in body. reduces or shuts off original stimulus. ex: reg. body temp (nervous sys), reg of blood in glucose by insulin (endocrine sys)

homestasis

maintains of relatively stable internal conditions despite continuous changes in the environment. dynamic state of equilibrium readjusting as needed. maintained by contributions of organ sys.

Anatomic terms

anatomical position:standing up, palms facing forward

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two major divisions


1. axial: trunk, the center core region
2. appendicular: limbs > arms & legs

Anterior/ventral

posterior/dorsal

Planes

saginal

midline in body, “cut” in half

* midsagittal: median plane: perfectly on midline
* parasaginal: off centered. not on midline

oblique section

cuts at angle other than 90 degrees to vertical plane

body cavities

* internal cavities closed to the environment
* provide different degrees of protection to organs w in them

9 abdominal regions

1. **right hypochondriac region** (liver, gallbladder)
2. **right lumbar region** (ascending colon of the large intestine)
3. **right iliac** (**inguinal) region** (cecum, appendix)

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4. **epigastric region** (stomach)
5. **umbilical region** (small intestine, transverse colon of large intestine)
6. **hypogastric (pubic) region** (urinary bladder)

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7. **left hypochondriac region** (diaphragm, spleen)
8. **left lumbar region** (descending colon of the large intestine)
9. **left iliac (inguinal) region** (initial part of sigmoid colon)

parietal v visceral

parietal: surrounds the abdomen and pelvis

visceral: wraps around abdominal organs

key elements for biological processes and the human body

4 elements


1. oxygen
2. hydrogen
3. carbon
4. nitrogen

subatomic particles

1. proton +
2. neutron (neutral)
3. electron -

mixture v compound

1. mixture
* two or more components physically intermixed
* do not involve chemical bonding between components
* can be physically separated
2. compound
* specific molecule w/ 2 or more diff kinds of atoms bonded together ex: C6H12O6
* compounds separated by breaking chemical bonds

chemical bonds

chemical bonds: are “energy relationships” between electrons reaching atoms

Octet rule:

* atoms want 8 electrons in valence shell-driving force behind chemical reactions
* most atoms do not have full valence shells
* gain, lose, or share electrons to achieve stability.

3 major chem bonds

1. ionic bonds
2. covalent bonds
3. hydrogen bonds

ionic bond

* transfer of valence electrons from one atom to another resulting in ions
* anion (gains electrons - negative charge)
* cation (loses electrons + positive charge)
* attraction of opposite charges results in ionic bond

covalent bonds

* formed by sharing of 2 or more valence electrons between 2 atoms
* Share 2 elections=single bond
* Share 4 electrons=double bond
* Share 6 electrons= triple bond
* allows each atom to fill its valence shell at least part of the time
* 2 types of covalent bonds
* *nonpolar*: equal sharing of electrons between atoms > electrically balanced ex: CO2
* *polar*: unequally sharing of electrons between 2 atoms electrically unbalanced, polar molecules. ex: H2O

hydrogen bonds

* attractive force between electropositive hydrogen of one molecule and electronegative atom of another molecule
* niot true bond, more of a weak magnetic attraction
* common between dipoles like: water

molecular formula

Chemical formula that shows th enumber of different atoms present in a molecule. ex: CO2 > c 1 > o 2

chemical reactions

* chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds are formed, rearranged or broken > reactions written as symbols = chemical equations
* compounds are represented as molecular formulas ex: H2O or C6H12O6
* types: synthesis, decomposition, exchange

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Synthesis (chemical reactions)

* atom or molecules combing to form larger, more complex molecule
* used in anabolic (building) process
* A + B = AB

Decomposition (chemical reactions)

* breakdown or a molecule into smaller molecules or atoms
* involve catabolic (bond-breaking) reactions
* AB = A + B

exchange (chemical reactions)

*displacement* reactions- involve both sythesis and decompostion

* AB + C = AC + B
* AB + CD = AD + CB

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rate of chemical reactions

* chemical reaction speed can be affected by:
* temp: increase temp=increase rate
* concentration of reactions: increase concentration= increased rate
* particle size: smaller particles =increased rate
* CATALYSTS: increase reaction rate w/o being chemically changed or becoming part of the product
* *enzymes* are biological catalysts
* control metabolic processes

Water

* most abundant inorganic compound: 60-80% of cell volume
* special properties
* **high heat capacity:** can absorb and release heat w/ little temp changes
* **high heat vaporization:** evaporation requires a lot of heat
* useful cooing mechanism
* **polar solvent properties:** dissolves and dissociates ionic substances, body major transport
* **reactivity**
* **cushioning**

salts

* I**onic compounds:** dissociate into separate ions in water
* cations and anions (negatively charged)
* except for H+ and OH- ions
* also called electrolytes: can conduct electrical currents in solution
* important roles in body functions
* ex: sodium, potassium, calcium, iron
* ionic balance is key component of homeostasis

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Acids and bases

both = electrolytes- dissociate in water

acids

acids- proton donors

* release HYDROGEN ions (H+)
* no electrons
* ex: HC1 > H+ + C1 -
* important acids
* \`HC1: hydriodic acid
* HC2H3O2:acetic acid

bases

bases-proton acceptors

* pick up H+ ions in solution
* ex: NaOH > Na ++ OH-
* releases a hydroxyl ion (OH-) when dissolved in water

Important bases

* bicarbonate (HCO3-) and Ammonia (NH3)

pH: acid base concentration

* pH scale- measurement oh hydrogen ion concentration. (H+) in a solution, the mor ehydrogen ions the more acidic the solution
* pH ranges from 0-14: one being really acidic

pH scale

1. acidic solutions: high H+ but low pH range=0-6.99
2. Neutral solutions: equal H+ and OH- ions, all are pH 7
3. alkaline (base) solutions: low H+ but high pH: Range- 7.01-14

*neutralization reaction: acids and base mixed*

Buffers

Resist abrupt and large swings in pH

* can release or bind H+ as necessary
* convert strong acids or bases into weak ones
* ex: carbonic acid- bicarbonate sys (important buffer sys of blood)

organic v inorganic

1. organic
* polymer= a chain of similar units (monomers)
* Dehydration synthesis= created bond; connects
* hydrolysis reaction= break bonds
2. inorganic compounds do not contain a carbon atom in them

lipids

C, H, O fewer then carbs +/- P

insoluble in water

triglycerides *(lipids)*

* solid-fat’s, liquids and oils
* 3 fatty acid bonded to glycerol molecule
* functions: store energy, insulation, protection
* saturated fats
* all Cs linked via single covalent bonds, max # of Hs
* solid at room temp (ex: animal fats, butter)
* unsaturated fatty acids
* I + Cs linked by double bonds, liquid at room temp

phospholipids *(lipids)*

* modified triglycerides- glycerol + 2 fatty acids + P group
* “head” & “tail” w different properties
* head is polar & hydrophillic
* tails are nonpolar & hydrophobic
* important in cell membrane structure

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steroids *(lipids)*

* four interlocking rings
* most important steroid = cholesterol
* made by the liver in animal products (cheese, eggs, meat)
* plasma membrane structure

eicosanoids *(lipids)*

* derived from fatty acid in the cell membrane


* prostaglandins
* role in blood clotting, blood pressure, inflammation, and smooth muscle contractions
* blocked by NSAIDs (over counter drugs)

carbohydrates

starches and sugars- C, H, O: 3 classes

monosaccharides *(carbohydrates)*

1 sugar

* absorbable, simplist carb > monomers
* ex: pentose sugars (ribose and deoxyribose) hexose sugars (glucose)

disaccharides *(carbohydrates)*

2 sugars

* to large to pass through cell membrane
* ex: sucrose, maltose, lactose
* formed by dehydration synthesis of two monosaccharides

polysaccharides *(carbohydrates)*

3+ sugars

* polymers of monosaccharides, formed by dehydration synthesis of many monomers
* ex: starch: storage carb, plants
* ex: glycogen: storage carb, animals
* not absorbable

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proteins

* 20-30% of cell mass
* variety of cell functions
* structural, chemical (enzymes), concentration (muscles), communication defense
* C, H, O, N and +/- S & P
* amino acid monomers connected by peptide bonds in polypeptide polymer
* four structural levels

*amino acids: linked by covalent bonds (peptide bonds, amine group (N), acid group (COH), H*

Protein structural level

1. primary: line of amino acids
2. Secondary: primarily amino acids interact


1. ALPHA HELIX- coil, spring-like
2. BETA PIEATED SHEETS- accordion ribbons
3. tertiary: secondary structures interact
4. quaternary: 2+ diff polypeptides interact

protein shapes

1. fibrous (structural) proteins


1. strand, water insoluble, stabe, mechanical, support and tensile strength
2. tertiary or quaternary structure (3-D)
3. ex: keratin, elastin, collagen
2. globular (functional) proteins


1. compact, spierical, water-soluble, and sensitive to environment
2. tertiary or quaternary structure (3-D)
3. specific function regions (activity sites)
4. ex: antibodies, hormones, enzymes.

enzymes actions

1. substrate binds to enzymes active site > forms enzyme substrate complex
2. substrate rearrangement > final product
3. product release from enzyme

DNA

genetic blueprint for synthesis of all proteins

* double helix-in cell nucleus
* 4 nitrogen bases
* purines: adenine (A), guanine (G)
* Pyrimidines: Cytosine (C), thymine (T)
* specific nitrogen bonding pattern-complentary base pairing rules

*A pairs w T*

*G pairs w C*

RNA

links DNA to protein synthesis

* differs from DNA
* singles stranded, active outside nucleus, ribose sugar, uracil instead or thymine
* 3 varieties of RNA
* messenger mRNA
* transfer tRNA
* ribosomal rRNA

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ATP

* chemical energy released when glucose is broken down is captured as ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
* directly powers chemical reactions in cells
* end phosphate group can be transferred to other compounds- use energy stored in phosphate bond to do worol
* loss of third phosphate group converts to ATP to ADP
* loss second phosphate group converts to ADP to AMp

cell theory

* structural and functional unit of life


* cells can only come from other cells
* cant be created from nothing

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cells

1. plasma membrane: flexible outer boundary
2. cytoplasm: intracellular fluid containing organelles; everything in cell membrane
3. nucleus: DNA containing control center; “brain” of the cell

structure of generalized cell

cell diversity

extracellular materials

outside the cell

* interstitial fluid
* blood plasma
* cerebrospinal fluid

Plasma membrane

barrier: intracellular v extracellular

lipid bilayer:

* phospholipids, glycoproteins, cholesterol
* proteins: embedded in the cell membrane
* integral: film attachment, transport, enzyme, receptor
* peripheral: loose attachment, enzyme, shape, change, connections
* fluid mosaic

Glycocalyx- CHOs (sugars) attached to proteins or lipids

* specific patter > cell recognition

*immune sys*

cell junctions

1. tight junctions: leak proof seal > like a ziplock bag


1. GIT, urinary sys
2. desmosomes: rivets or buttons, flexibility= doesn’t prevent leaking


1. skin, cardiac
3. gap junctions: proteins form tunnels, fast communication


1. cardiac, smooth muscle

passive v active transport

passive:

* no energy is required w concentration gradient
* types
* simple diffusion
* facilitated diffusion- carrier protein
* osmosis
* osmolarity: total concentration of solute particles

active:

* energy (ATP) required, against concentration gradient
* types
* active transport
* primary active trans. - ATP used to change protein shape (-Na+-K+ ATPase pump enzyme)
* secondary active trans. - ion gradient changes primary active trans. allow other substances to move
* Reticular trans. - macromolecules in vesicles- very long trans molecules
* endocytosis
* phagocytosis: cell eating
* pinocytosis: cell drinking
* receptor: mediated endocytosis-specific
* exocytosis: kicking something out of the cell

osmosis pressure changes

hydrostatic pressure:

* pressure of water inside cell, pushing on membrane

osmotic pressure:

* solutes/particles pulling on water (toward)
* the more solutes inside a cell, the higher the osmotic pressure

osmosis

Tonicity: solution changes cell shape by from water volume shifts


1. isolotic soltuion: same osmolarity as inside the cell


1. no change- most IV liquids
2. hypertonic solution: higher osmolarity than inside cell


1. water flows out > shrinks the cell *crenation*
3. hypotonic solution: lower osmolarity than inside the cell


1. water flows into cell > cell swelling *cell burst>lysing/lysis*

membrane potential

resting membrane potential (RMP) - electrical potential energy produced by charged particles moving across the plasma membrane

* the voltage at the membrane surface
* voltage= difference in electrical charge between 2 points: outer and inner surface of cell membrane
* rest of cells & extracellular fluid are neutral
* membrane voltages-range of -50 to -100 mV

Na+ -K+ ATPase Pump: sodium-potassium pump

* 3 Na+ pumped OUT of the cell
* 2 K+ brought INTO the cell
* cellular Na+ concentration is relatively consistent
* Na+ leaks channels
* myocytes & neurons > open gated channels allowing Na+ & K+ move quickly

the cell

cell cycle: leads to cell division

* series of changes a cell undergoes from formation unit reproduces
* major periods:
* interphase: cell grows and usual activities
* prepares for cell division, uncondensed chromatin
* subphases
* G1 (gap 1) vigorous growth & metabolism
* S (synthesis) DNA replicates occurs
* G2 (gap 2) preparation for division
* cell division: mitosis > 2 daughter cells
* 4 stages of mitosis
* prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase

Prophase (1) *(4 stages of mitosis )*

1) prophase:

* __***early prophase***__: chromatin condenses > chromosomes, two copies (sister chromatids) held together by a centromere.
* __***late prophase***__: nuclear envelope breaks. microtubules attach to centromeres and pull chromosomes to the center of the cell

metaphase (2) (*4 stages of mitosis )*

centromeres of chromosomes aligned at cells equator

Anaphase (3) (*4 stages of mitosis )*

centromeres of chromosomes split simultaneously > each sister chromatin is separate now. chromosomes pulled toward their pulls by mtor proteins of kinetochores

Telophase (4) (*4 stages of mitosis )*

begins when chromosome movement stops. chromosomes unciol > chromatin. nuclear membranes form around chromatin. nucleoli reappear, spindle, disappears.

* __***cytokinesis:***__
* when telophase is wrapping up and begins during late anaphase, a ring of actin microfilaments contract > from cleavage furrow. two daughter cells pinched apart.

protein synthesis

DNA holds code for protein synthesis: directs amino acids in polypeptide. gene-segment of DNA that holds code for polypeptide. determined in oder of (A, G, T, C): ex: GGC codes for amino acid proline

* role of RNA > linking DNA to proteins, formed in nucleus
* two steps
* __***transcription***__: dna information coded in mRNA
* __***translation***__: mRNA decoded to assemble polypeptides

DNA ------------------→ RNA--------------→ Protein

transcription translation

transcritpion __*(protein synthesis)*__

1. initiation: get started. RNA polymerase separates DNA strands


2. Elongation: majority of time, bring in nucleotide
3. Termination: end of gene

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translation __*(protein synthesis)*__

Language or nucleic acids (base sequence) is translated into the language of proteins (amino acid seq.)

* invlove: mRNA, tRNA, Ribosomes, +/- rough ER

Tissues

group of cells similar in structure & appearance that perform common of related function

histology

study of tissues

four basic types of tissues

1. epithelial
2. connective
3. muscle
4. nervous

5 distinguishing characteristics of tissues

1. polarity: apical (top) & basal (bottom) surface
2. specialized contracts: tight junctions, desomeones
3. supported by connective tissues: basement membrane
4. avascular (poop blood supply) but innervated
5. regeneration: undergoes mitosis easily

simple squamous epithelium

simple combodial epithelium

simple columnar epithelium

pseudostratified columnar epithelium

stratified squamous epithelium