HRM 360 Final

Organization

A structured group of p[eople working together to achieve common goals

Four types of assets in an organization

1. Human Assets - Employees and their skills, knowledge, and experience

2. Physical Assets - Tangible resources like buildings, equipment, and materials

3. Financial Assets - Monetary resources used to fund operations

4. Intellectual Assets - Knowledge, patents, branding, and proprietary technology

Organizational Behavior 3 levels of Analysis

• Individual Level - How an individual behaves, their personality, and how they make decisions

  • EX: : How an employee manages stress or makes career decisions.

• Group Level - How people interact in teams and manage conflicts

  • EX: Team cohesion, leadership styles, and group decision-making.

• Organization Level - How organizational culture and structure impact performance

  • EX: How company policies affect employee engagement.

Hypothesis

is a written prediction specifying expected relationships between variables

Independent Variable (IV)

The factor that is manipulated or changes naturally to influence another variable

Dependent Variable (DV)

The outcome being measured, which is affected by the IV.

Positive Correlation

means both variables move in the same direction (e.g., increased training leads to higher job performance).

Negative Correlation

means one variable increases while the other decreases (e.g., higher stress levels lead to lower job satisfaction).

Correlation

shows a relationship between two variables but does not prove that one causes the other.

Causation

means one variable directly influences another, proven through experimental studies.

Case Studies

In depth descriptions of a single industry or company

• Strength: Provides detailed insights

• Weaknesses: Findings may not apply to other settings

Field Studies

Conducted in actual organizations, often using surveys or experiments

• Strengths: Real-world applicability

• Weaknesses: Hard to control external forces

Laboratory Studies

Controlled experiments with manipulation and control groups

• Strength: Helps determine causation

• Weaknesses: May lack real-world generalizability

Machine Learning

Uses algorithms to analyze large datasets and predict behaviors

• Strength: Can handle complex relationships between variables

• Weakness: Requires large amounts of high-quality data

Meta-Analysis

Combines results from multiple studies to find overall trends

• Strength: Strongest evidence base

• Weaknesses: Requires many prior studies on a topic

Surveys

Questionaries used to collect data on workplace behaviors and attitudes

• Strength: Easy to administer to large groups

• Weaknesses: Potential for biased or inaccurate responses

Organizational Behavior (OB)

The systematic study and application of knowledge about how individuals and groups act within the organizations where they work.

Levels on Analysis

In OB, includes examining the individual, the group, and the organization.

Chunking

The process of taking single pieces of information and grouping them into larger units.

Overlearning

Continued studying and practice after initial proficiency has been achieved.

Visual Learner

One who processes information by looking at words and diagrams.

Auditory Learners

One who processes information by listening or talking.

Kinesthetic (Tactile) Learners

One who processes information by actively engaging with the material

Datum

Refers to a single observation

Reliability

The consistency of the measurement

Validity

The degree to which a measure captures what it intends to measure

Big Data

The volume, variety, veracity, or validity of data

Descriptive Analytics

Approaches focused on understanding what has already happened.

Predictive Analytics

What is likely to happen based on what we already know.

Prescriptive Analytics

A focus on what should be done in the future based on what we know.

Employee Enagegement

The degree to which employees are fully involved in and enthusiastic about their work.

Gig Economy

The prevalence of temporary employment positions where individuals are independent contractors rather than employees of organizations.

Outsourcing

An organization asking an outside organization to perform functions that could have been performed by itself.

Offshoring

Refers to some or all of a business process being moved from one country to another country.

Why Diversity and Inclusion go hand in hand

Diversity without inclusion leads to underrepresentation, disengagement, and workplace tension. Inclusion ensures that diverse employees feel valued, leading to better engagement, creativity, and company performance.

Benefits of Diversity and Inclusion in Workplace

• Better understanding and service of customers

• More satisfied workforce

• Higher creativity in decision making

• Higher company performance

• Higher stock prices

• Lower litigation expenses

Laws that grant protection to protected characteristics

• Age Discrimination

  • Age Discrimination Act of 1975 – Protects individuals 40 and older from workplace discrimination.

• Race, Gender, National Origin, Color, and Religion

  • Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 – Prohibits discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin.

• Disabilities

  • Americans with Disabilities Act (1990) – Prohibits discrimination against employees with physical or mental disabilities.

• Sex Discrimination

  • Equal Pay Act (1963)

  • Title VII of the Civil Rights Act - Prohibits sex discrimination in all employment related decisions

  • Lily Ledbetter Fair Pay Act - Extends the timeframe for filing wage discrimination claims

Illegal Interview Questions

Employers cannot ask about age, marital status, religion, disability, pregnancy, or national origin.

EX:

1. "What is your maiden name?"

2. "Do you have children?"

3. "Is English your first language?"

Similarity Attraction Phenomenon

• The tendency to be more attracted to people who are similar to us.

• Leads to biased hiring when managers favor candidates of the same sex, race, or background over more qualified individuals.

Surface Level Diversity

• Differences that are visible, such as race, gender, and age.

  • Example: A team with members from different ethnic backgrounds.

Deep-Level Diversity

• Differences in values, beliefs, and attitudes.

  • Example: A team with different problem-solving styles.

Challenges to Diversity and Inclusion

1. Stereotypes – Generalizations about a group that can lead to bias in hiring and promotions.

2. Unconscious Bias – Implicit assumptions that influence decisions outside of awareness.

3. Glass Ceiling – Invisible barriers preventing women and minorities from reaching senior positions.

4. Glass Cliff – Women and minorities are often promoted to leadership positions in struggling firms, increasing their risk of failure.

5. Pay Gap – Women earn 85% of what men earn, often due to negotiation differences, stereotypes, and bias.

Tools Organizations can Use to Foster Diversity and Inclusion

1. Building an Inclusive Culture – Encouraging open dialogue and diverse perspectives.

2. Effective Diversity Training – Programs to reduce bias and improve awareness.

3. Reviewing Recruitment Practices – Ensuring hiring is based on merit, not bias.

4. Idiosyncratic Deals (I-Deals) – Custom work arrangements that benefit both the employee and organization.

5. Affirmative Action Programs – Policies designed to recruit, train, and promote underrepresented groups.

Legal Limitations of Affirmative Action

• Simple Elimination of Discrimination – Legal and least controversial.

• Targeted Recruitment – Ensures diverse applicants in the candidate pool.

• Tie-Breaker – Preference for a minority candidate only if all other qualifications are equal.

• Preferential Treatment – Illegal unless the characteristic is a Bona Fide Occupational Qualification (BFOQ).

Individualism vs Collectivism

1. Individualistic cultures (U.S., Canada) value independence and self-reliance.

2. Collectivistic cultures (China, Japan) value group harmony and loyalty.

Power Distance

1. High Power Distance (India, Mexico) – Accept hierarchy and inequality.

2. Low Power Distance (Denmark, Sweden) – Prefer equal power distribution

Uncertainty Avoidance

1. High Uncertainty Avoidance (Germany, Japan) – Prefer structured environments.

2. Low Uncertainty Avoidance (U.S., Singapore) – Adapt easily to change.

Masculinity vs Femininty

1. Masculine (Aggressive) Cultures (U.S., Japan) – Value competition and success.

2. Feminine (Nurturing) Cultures (Sweden, Netherlands) – Value relationships and quality of life.

Long-Term vs Short-Term Orientation

1. Long-Term Oriented (China, Japan) – Focus on future planning and persistence.

2. Short-Term Oriented (U.S., Mexico) – Prioritize quick results and traditions.

Tight vs Loose Cultures

• Tight Cultures (Japan, South Korea) – Strict norms and low tolerance for deviance.

• Loose Cultures (U.S., Hungary) – Flexible norms and high tolerance for different behaviors.

I-deals

Negotiated arrangements between employees and managers that benefit the employee and the organization.

Emotions

are intense, short-term reactions to specific stimuli (e.g., object, person, event) that prepare us to respond to that stimulus.

Moods

are short-term emotional states not directed at anything specific.

Trait Affectivity

• refers to a person’s stable tendency to experience certain moods/emotions:

  • Positive affectivity: a predisposition to experience positive emotions (e.g., enthusiasm, energy).

  • Negative affectivity: a predisposition to experience negative emotions (e.g., anger, anxiety).

How do Attitudes Form

In a sequence:

• Cognition: Beliefs or knowledge about something.

• Affect (emotion): Emotional reactions to those beliefs.

• Behavioral intention: Intentions to act based on cognition and emotion.
  This forms the CAB model (Cognition → Affect → Behavior).

Emotional Contagion

the process where emotions and behaviors are transferred from one person to another. For example, smiling can cause others to feel happier, while frowning can spread negativity.

Emotional Labor

the regulation of feelings and expressions for organizational goals, especially common in service jobs.

• Surface acting: Faking emotions without changing how you feel (leads to most burnout and stress)

• Deep acting: Changing how you feel to align with the required emotion

• Genuine acting: Naturally feeling and expressing the required emotion
  Surface acting is most draining and linked to higher emotional exhaustion.

Cognitive Dissonance

the mental discomfort from inconsistencies between attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors. For example, expressing enthusiasm for a product you dislike can cause internal tension.

Affective Events Theory

explains how workplace events trigger emotional reactions, which influence work attitudes and behaviors.

Affect-Driven Behavior

refers to actions triggered directly by emotions, such as walking out of a frustrating meeting.

Four Elements of Emotional Intelligence

1. Self-awareness: Recognizing your own emotions

2. Self-management: Regulating your emotions appropriately

3. Social awareness: Understanding others' emotions (empathy)

4. Relationship management: Managing interpersonal relationships constructively.

Distress vs Eustress

• Distress (negative): harmful, overwhelming stress.

• Eustress (positive): beneficial stress that promotes growth.
  Alternatively:

Hindrance Stressors vs Challenge Stressors

• Hindrance stressors: Block personal growth and goal achievement (e.g., red tape).

• Challenge stressors: Promote growth and learning despite being demanding (e.g., a new project).

3 Stress Theories

1. General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS): Selye’s model—3 stages of response: Alarm → Resistance → Exhaustion. Chronic stress leads to breakdown.

2. Demand-Control Model: High stress arises when job demands are high and personal control is low.

3. Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) Model: Stress results from an imbalance between demands and available resources.

Groups

a collection of individuals who interact with each other. can be formal or informal

Teams

a cohesive coalition of individuals working collaboratively to achieve mutual goals. typically have deeper levels of coordination and commitment compared to groups.

Formal vs Informal Groups

• Formal Work Groups: Deliberately created by the organization; includes managers, subordinates, etc., working toward organizational goals.

• Informal Groups: Arise naturally, based on personal relationships or shared interests outside formal structure.

Promise of Teams

• Division of labor

• Increased productivity and creativity

• Diverse perspectives
  This is in contrast to process loss, which includes coordination problems, conflict, and social loafing.

Factors determining Team Effectiveness and Productivity

• Team Size: Larger teams risk social loafing and coordination issues; smaller teams may lack diverse perspectives. Balance is key.

• Team Leadership: Strong leadership helps guide teams through development stages and avoids dysfunction.

• Nature of the Task: Complex tasks benefit more from teamwork than simple tasks.

• Synergy/Cohesion: High cohesion can enhance performance—but excessive cohesion can lead to groupthink, stifling dissent and creativity.

Stages of Team Development

• Forming

• Storming

  • Personalities emerge; conflict and power struggles surface

  • Members argue, challenge authority, or resist direction

  • Necessary stage for establishing norms

• Norming

• Performing

• Adjourning

Punctuated Equilibrium Model

• Suggests teams go through long periods of stability punctuated by brief bursts of change often triggered by deadlines or crises.

• Not all change is gradual—some is revolutionary.

Factors Affecting Cohesion

• Similarity in background or values

• Stability of group membership

• Size (smaller groups tend to be more cohesive)

• Support (organizational and interpersonal)

• Satisfaction from group involvement

Is cohesion always a good thing?

No. Too much cohesion can lead to groupthink—a dangerous conformity where dissenting ideas are discouraged or silenced.

Groupthink

• A dysfunctional decision-making process where the desire for harmony overrides rational analysis.

• Often results in poor or unethical outcomes because alternative views are suppressed.

Collective Efficacy

A team’s shared belief in their ability to succeed. Boosted by past success, confidence, and supportive leadership

Dysfunctional Conflict

Also known as destructive conflict, it focuses on emotions and personal differences, leading to tension, stress, and reduced performance.

Adaptive/Functional Conflict

• Supports innovation and creativity

• Balances interests to maximize mutual gains

• Encourages open communication and problem solving

• Is task-focused, not personal.

Possible Sources of Conflict

• Organizational structure

• Limited resources

• Task interdependence

• Incompatible goals

• Personality differences

• Communication problems

• Values conflict

• Unmet expectations.

Contributions to Escalation of Conflict

• Miscommunication or assumptions

• Escalating emotional reactions

• Unaddressed tensions

• Unclear boundaries or expectations

• Perception of personal attack

• Retaliatory behaviors.

Types of Conflict

• Intrapersonal (within one person)

• Interpersonal (between individuals)

• Intergroup (between departments or teams)

• Task-related conflict (related to job content)

• Process conflict (how work is done)

• Relationship conflict (personal incompatibilities).

Relationship between task-related conflict and performance

• Moderate task conflict in early stages may improve decisions and creativity

• High levels or relationship conflict can damage performance and morale

• Conflict should stay focused on the task, not personalities.

Glasl’s Nine-Stage Model of Conflict Escalation

1. Hardening: Tension starts; differences are verbalized

2. Debates and polemics: Sides are formed; positions defended rigidly

3. Actions, not words: Distrust increases; communication breaks down
   → Dominant mindset: Win-Win

4. Images and coalitions: Negative stereotypes form; alliances built

5. Loss of face: Attacks become personal; integrity questioned

6. Strategies of threats: Ultimatums and threats used
   → Dominant mindset: Win-Lose

7. Limited destructive blows: Use of power; goal is to hurt

8. Fragmentation of the enemy: Total destruction of the opponent

9. Together into the abyss: Mutual destruction
   → Dominant mindset: Lose-Lose.

When is Negotiation a possible solution? Mediation?

• Negotiation: Used early or when both parties still have bargaining power

• Mediation: When parties struggle to reach agreement independently

• Arbitration: When a binding decision is necessary

• Mediation-Arbitration: Attempts mediation first, but falls back on arbitration if needed.

Best and Worst Conflict Resolution Strategies

• Best: Collaborating – Win-win mindset, mutual respect

• Good: Compromising – Partial satisfaction, quick solution

• Worst: Competing (Win-Lose) or Avoiding (no resolution)

• Risky: Accommodating – Can lead to resentment if overused
  → Judge strategy based on whether it acknowledges others, regulates emotion, and seeks shared gains.

Five Strategies for Interpersonal Conflict Management

1. Collaborating – High assertiveness & cooperation. Seeks win-win.

2. Compromising – Moderate assertiveness & cooperation. Shared solution.

3. Competing – High assertiveness, low cooperation. Win at all costs.

4. Accommodating – Low assertiveness, high cooperation. Yield to others.

5. Avoiding – Low assertiveness & cooperation. Ignore conflict.

Distributive Negotiation (Distributive Approach)

• Win-lose scenario

• Fixed amount of value (zero-sum)

• Each party seeks to maximize their gain at the other's expense

• Example: negotiating a car price

Integrative Negotiation (Integrative Approach)

• Win-win mindset

• Focused on mutual benefit and relationship preservation

• Often used in long-term partnerships or employment negotiations.

Best Alternative to a Negotiated Agreement (BATNA)

Your backup plan if no deal is reached. The stronger your BATNA, the more negotiation power you have.

Reservation Point vs Target Point

• Reservation Point: The worst outcome you’re willing to accept

• Target Point: The best outcome you aim for—aggressive but realistic
  → E.g., if your salary is $80K and you want $90K, your reservation might be $82K, your target is $90K.

Difference Between Mediation, Arbitration, Med-Arb

• Mediation: Facilitator helps both sides find agreement (non-binding)

• Arbitration: Neutral party imposes a binding decision

• Med-Arb: Starts with mediation; if it fails, uses pre-determined arbitration ruling.