Logical Reasoning (Loophole by Ellen Cassidy)

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Stimulus Type: Debate

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CLIR Type: Controversy

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Stimulus Type: Argument

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CLIR Type: Loophole

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137 Terms

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Stimulus Type: Debate

CLIR Type: Controversy

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Stimulus Type: Argument

CLIR Type: Loophole

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Stimulus Type: Premise Set

CLIR Type: Inference

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Stimulus Type: Paradox

CLIR Type: Resolution

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Premise Indicators

because, for, since, as, given that

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Conclusion Indicators

therefore, accordingly, consequently, so, thus, hence, it follows that

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Inference vs. Valid Conclusion

Valid Conclusion = presented as part of an argument

Inference = a valid conclusion that you design yourself

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Certainty Power Players

Must, Cannot

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Possibility Power Players

Could, Not Necessarily

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Certainty Conclusions require:

Certainty Premises

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Possibility Conclusions require:

Certainty Premises (preferred) or Possibility Premises (usually invalid)

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Must Be True is equivalent to:

Cannot Be False

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Cannot Be True is equivalent to:

Must Be False

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Could Be True is equivalent to:

Not Necessarily False

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Not Necessarily True is equivalent to:

Could Be False

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Must Be True negated is:

Not Necessarily True

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Not Necessarily True negated is:

Must Be True

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Cannot Be True negated is:

Could Be True

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Could Be True negated is:

Cannot Be True

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Sufficient Condition

The "if" part of the conditional

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If the sufficient condition is absent:

you can completely ignore the conditional statement.

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Sufficient Condition Indicators

if, when, whenever, any, anytime, all, every, everytime, in order to, people who, each

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Necessary Condition

The "then" part of the conditional

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Necessary Condition Indicators

then, must, necessary, required, only, only if, depends, need, need to, have to, essential, precondition

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'Only If' is a ________ indicator

Necessary

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'Unless' Diagram:

~[The way things always are] --> Exception

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What does a sufficient assumption do?

It proves the conclusion 100% true

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What does a necessary assumption do?

It is proven true if the conclusion is true

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The Assumption Chain

SA --> Conclusion True --> NA

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SA Test

Does [assumption candidate] prove the conclusion?

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NA Test

If the conclusion is true, must [assumption candidate] be true?

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The negated necessary assumption is equivalent to:

The Loophole!

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The 3 Omitted Options

1. No Relationship

2. Backwards Causation

3. New Factor Causing One or Both

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Classic Flaw: Bad Conditional Reasoning

author reads the conditionals supplied in the premises incorrectly

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Classic Flaw: Bad Causal Reasoning

One of the 3 omitted options is present in this causal relationship

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Classic Flaw: Whole-to-Part & Part-to-Whole

The argument assumes from wholes to parts or from parts to wholes

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Classic Flaw: Overgeneralization

Part does not equal all of the parts (part to part)

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Classic Flaw: Survey Problems

1. Biased Sample

2. Biased Questions

3. Other Contradictory Surveys

4. Survey Liars

5. Small Sample Size

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Classic Flaw: False Starts

Researchers assume that the two groups are the same in all respects except the ones called out as part of the study

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Classic Flaw: Possibility =/= Certainty

1. Lack of Evidence =/= Evidence of Lacking

2. Proof of Evidence =/= Evidence of Proof

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Classic Flaw: Implication

Implication tells people what they believe when the person in question may not be aware of what their belief implies

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Classic Flaw: False Dichotomy

1. Limiting a Spectrum

2. Limiting Options

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Classic Flaw: Straw Man

Straw Man arguments "respond" to an opponent by "mishearing" what was said to them

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Classic Flaw: Ad Hominem

Ad Hominem premises insult the proponent of a position, but then the conclusion challenges the truth of the position itself. The problem is that proponents don't affect the truth/falsity of their position

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Classic Flaw: Circular Reasoning

A circular argument assumes the conclusion is true before doing the work of proving it so

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Classic Flaw: Equivocation

Equivocation happens when the author changes the meaning of a word throughout an argument

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Classic Flaw: Appeal Fallacies

1. Invalid Appeal to Authority - Author uses a non-expert opinion to support their conclusion

2. Invalid Appeal to Public Opinion - a high percentage of random people believing anything has very little bearing on whether that thing is actually true

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Classic Flaw: Irrelevant!

Premises are unrelated to the conclusion

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Classic Flaw: Percentages =/= Numbers

Premises about numbers (#) almost never lead to conclusions about percentages (%) and vice versa

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Powerful Question Types

SW SCCER: Strengthen, Weaken, SA, Counter, Contradiction, Evaluate, Resolution

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Provable Question Types

Conclusion, Inference, MSS, Fill In, Controversy, Agreement, NA, Method, Argument Part, Classic Flaw, Loophole Flaw, Principle Conform, Parallel Reasoning, Parallel Flaw

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Powerful Answer Keywords

all, every, none, never, only, required, every time, always

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Provable Answer Keywords

could, usually, can, possible, (at least) some, not necessarily, (at least) one, possibly, tend to, sometimes, not all, may, varies

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If an answer choice is neither powerful nor provable:

it is always wrong, no matter the question type

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Strengthen Correct Answer

The most powerful thing you can find to help the argument's conclusion

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Strengthen Back-Up Plan

Does this make the conclusion more likely to be true?

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Strengthen Question Stem Keywords

- which of the following, if true

- strengthen

- most helps to + justify/strengthen/support

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Weaken Correct Answer

The most powerful thing you can find to destroy the argument's conclusion

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Weaken Back-Up Plan

Does this make the conclusion less likely to be true?

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Weaken Question Stem Keywords

- which of the following, if true

- weaken

- most undermines the conclusion

- most vulnerable

- count as evidence against

- calls into question

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Sufficient Assumption (SA) Correct Answer

The most powerful thing you can find to prove the conclusion 100% valid

Reminder: SA --> Conclusion True --> NA

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Sufficient Assumption (SA) Back-Up Plan

If this is true, is the argument 100% completely valid?

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Sufficient Assumption (SA) Question Stem Keywords

- which of the following if true/assumed

- enable the conclusion to be properly drawn/justify the conclusion

- the conclusion follows logically if

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Counter Correct Answer

The most powerful thing the first speaker could say to destroy the second speaker's argument

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Counter Back-Up Plan

Is this something the first speaker would say and does it hurt the second speaker's argument?

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Counter Question Stem Keywords

- which one of the following, if true

- counter

- in response to

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Contradiction Correct Answer

the thing that contradicts literal words from the stimulus

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Contradiction Back-Up Plan

Does this contradict the stimulus?

Note: Crazy Nonsense does NOT contradict the stimulus because they are completely irrelevant

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Contradiction Question Stem Keywords

- if the statements above are true

- cannot be true

- violate the principle

- could be true except

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Evaluate Correct Answer

A powerful pop quiz for the argument's validity

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Evaluate Back-Up Plan

Is this crucial for the argument's validity?

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Evaluate Question Stem Keywords

- the answer to which of the following questions

- which of the following, if true

- evaluate + the argument/the conclusion

- most helpful to know/relevant to evaluating

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Resolution Correct Answer

The most powerful thing you can find to make the Paradox make sense

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Resolution Back-Up Plan

Does this make the Paradox make sense?

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Resolution Question Stem Keywords

- which one of the following, if true

- most helps to + explain/resolve/account for

- discrepancy/paradox/conflict/surprising result

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Conclusion Correct Answer

A provable translation of the conclusion

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Conclusion Back-Up Plan

Is this a translation of the conclusion?

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Conclusion Question Stem Keywords

- main point

- main conclusion

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Inference Correct Answer

The thing you can prove definitely must be true

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Inference Back-Up Plan

Does this have to be true?

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Inference Question Stem Keywords

- must be true/follows logically

- inference

- properly inferred/properly be

- concluded/properly drawn

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Most Strongly Supported (MSS) Correct Answer

The thing you can prove is very, very, very likely to be true

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Most Strongly Supported (MSS) Back-Up Plan

Does this pretty much have to be true?

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Most Strongly Supported (MSS) Question Stem Keywords

- most strongly supported

- most strongly suggests

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Fill In Correct Answer

The thing you can prove completes the author's thought

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Fill In Back-Up Plan

Does this have to be true?

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Fill In Question Stem Keywords

- completes/concludes

- a blank at the end of the stimulus

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Controversy Correct Answer

The thing you can prove the two speakers disagree about

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Controversy Back-Up Plan

Does the first speaker have to believe this is true/false? Does the second speaker have to believe this is true/false?

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Controversy Question Stem Keywords

- point at issue

- point of disagreement

- disagree

- differing opinions

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Agreement Correct Answer

The thing you can prove the two speakers agree about

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Agreement Back-Up Plan

Does the first speaker have to believe this? Does the second speaker have to believe this?

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Agreement Question Stem Keywords

- agree on

- point of agreement

- committed to agreeing

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Necessary Assumption (NA) Correct Answer

The thing you can prove must be true, if the conclusion is true

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Necessary Assumption (NA) Back-Up Plan

If the conclusion is true, does this have to be true?

Reminder: SA --> Conc. True --> NA

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Necessary Assumption Question Stem Keywords

- necessary/depends/required/relies

- assumes/assumption

- the conclusion does not follow unless

- the argument assumes which one

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Method Correct Answer

A provable description of what happened in the stimulus

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Method Back-Up Plan

Did this happen?

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Method Question Stem Keywords

- argument proceeds by

- describes

- argumentative technique/method of reasoning/strategy of argumentation

- responds by (in Debates)

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Argument Part Correct Answer

A provable description of what the phrase is doing in the argument