BSC2086 Anatomy & Physiology 2 Exam 2 Review

Blood Types

Classification of blood based on the presence or absence of specific antigens (A, B) on red blood cells and the Rh factor.

Albumin

The most abundant plasma protein; helps maintain osmotic pressure and transport substances.

Anemia

A condition where the blood has a reduced oxygen-carrying capacity due to low hemoglobin, low RBC count, or abnormal RBCs.

Leukopenia

An abnormally low white blood cell (WBC) count, which can weaken immunity. Less than 5,000. The opposite is Leukocytosis; elevated WBC count usually more than 10,000.

Monocytes

A type of large WBC that becomes a macrophage when it leaves the bloodstream; important in immune defense.

Basophils

a type of white blood cell (WBC) that play a role in the immune system, especially in allergic reactions and inflammation.Think of basophils as the “alarm system” of your immune response—they set off the chemical signals that recruit other immune cells to the scene.

Pernicious Anemia

Anemia caused by vitamin B₁₂ deficiency, often due to lack of intrinsic factor from the stomach.

Plasmin

An enzyme that dissolves fibrin clots during fibrinolysis.

Polycythemia

An abnormally high RBC count, increasing blood viscosity.

Fibrin

A protein that forms a mesh during blood clotting to stabilize the clot. Comes from fibrinogen, thread holds platelets together.

Heparin

An anticoagulant that prevents new clots from forming. Dissolves existing clots with plasmin.

Hemolytic disease of the newborn

A condition where maternal antibodies attack fetal RBCs due to Rh incompatibility.

Viscosity

Thickness of blood; affected by RBC count and plasma proteins. Resistance of a fluid to flow. Stickiness of a fluid.

Blood Functions

Transportation (gases, nutrients, wastes), regulation (pH, temperature), and protection (immunity, clotting).

Spleen

Lymphatic organ that filters blood, recycles RBCs, and helps fight infection.

Thrombosis

Formation of a blood clot in an unbroken blood vessel.

Embolism

A blockage caused by a traveling clot, air bubble, or fat droplet in the bloodstream.

Box Heart

A diagrammatic outline showing the four chambers, valves, and flow of blood through the heart.

1st heart sound

caused by closure of the atrioventricular (AV) valves. (S1)

2nd heart sound

caused by closure of the semilunar valves.

Cardiac Output

Volume of blood pumped by one ventricle per minute (CO = Heart Rate × Stroke Volume).

Chronotropic Agents

Factors that change heart rate. Positive chronotrpic agents heart rate goes up. (increases) Negative chonotropic agents heart rate goes down. (decreases)

ECG

(Electrocardiogram) A recording of the heart’s electrical activity.

End diastolic volume

(EDV) Volume of blood in a ventricle at the end of filling (diastole).

End systolic volume

(ESV) Volume of blood remaining in a ventricle after contraction (systole).

Endocardium

Inner lining of the heart chambers and valves.

Heart rate in different populations

Resting heart rate varies by age, fitness, and health (infants have higher rates 120bpm, females 72-80bpm, males 64-72bpm. athletes lower). Smaller the heart , higher the heart rate.

Tachycardia

resting adult heart rate above 100

Bradycardia

reacting adult heart rate less than 60

Heart valves

Structures that ensure one-way blood flow (AV valves: tricuspid, bicuspid plus semilunar valves: pulmonary, aortic).

Inotropic Agents

Factors that change the force of heart contraction. Positive inotropic agents increase contractility, Negative inotropic agents decrease contractility.

Pulmonary Arteries

Vessels carrying deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs.

SA Node

(Sinoatrial node) The heart’s pacemaker; generates impulses initiating heartbeat. Sets heart rate.

Stroke Volume

(SV) Amount of blood ejected from ventricles in 1 contraction. per beat by one ventricle (SV = EDV – ESV).

Aneurysm

A bulge in the wall of a blood vessel due to weakness. During Systole. risk of rupture.

Aortic arch branches

The three main branches: brachiocephalic trunk, left common carotid artery, and left subclavian artery.

Cardiac Center

Located in the medulla oblongata; regulates heart rate and contractility via autonomic nerves.

Arteries of the upper extremity

Includes subclavian, axillary, brachial, radial, and ulnar arteries.

Basilar Artery

Formed by the fusion of the vertebral arteries; supplies the brainstem and posterior brain.

Capacitance

The ability of blood vessels (especially veins) to stretch and store blood.

Cerebral Vascular Accident

(CVA) – A stroke; loss of brain function due to interrupted blood supply.

Glossopharyngeal/Vagus Nerves

Cranial nerves involved in baroreceptor reflexes controlling heart rate and blood pressure.

Portal Veins

(Hepatic Portal Veins) Veins that carry blood from one capillary bed to another, such as the intestines to the liver.

Transient Ischemic Attack

(TIA) A temporary reduction in brain blood flow causing stroke-like symptoms that resolve quickly.

Types of Shock

Hypovolemic shock: Due to blood or fluid loss. Cardiogenic shock: Due to heart pump failure. Vascular (distributive) shock: Due to abnormal vasodilation.