Psychological Assessments

Assessment

An umbrella term for the quantitative and/or qualitative evaluation methods counselors use to better understand characteristics of people, places, and things

Intelligence assessment

Evaluation of cognitive abilities such as communication, reasoning, abstract thought, learning, and problem-solving

Ability assessment

Assessment of acquired information (achievement) or an ability to acquire information (aptitude) about a particular subject matter or domain

Career assessment

Measure of a client’s career development process as well as the content domains of that process

Personality assessment

Examination of individual attributes, types, and traits related to cognitions, emotions, actions, and attitudes

Test

A systematic and often standardized process for sampling and describing a behavior of interest for individuals or groups

Standardized tests

Must meet certain standards or requirements during the testing process

Measurement

A descriptions of the degree to which a client possesses some characteristic

Variable

Refers to a construct or concept that can take on more than one value

Psychometrics

The study of measurement technique and theory

Screening

Identifying those in need of professional assistance, and guiding decision-making about whether additional assessment should be considered

Admission, classification, and selection

Examining an individual’s suitability for a particular program

Identification of risk factors, assets, and opportunities for growth

Improving or promoting client awareness, knowledge, and skills of strengths and assets while identifying potential and actual barriers that may impede their well-being

Diagnostic support

Gathering data to isolate core areas of concerns to develop or implement targeted interventions

Placement and planning

Establishing treatment goals; informing decision-making for services such as individual counseling, small-group counseling, general education and special education supports, and referral services

Progress monitoring

Establishing benchmarks for evaluating progress toward fostering client knowledge throughout the process

Outcomes measurement

Using aggregated and disaggregated data to measure program and individual outcomes relative to predetermined benchmarks

Research

Applying assessment findings to advance scholarship on counseling theory and technique development and implementation

Therapeutic tool

Experiencing therapeutic growth while engaging in the assessment process itself, and helping clients understand both their past and present attitudes and actions as well as their plans for the future

Social advocacy

Empowering clients and/or acting on their behalf to use knowledge, awareness, and skills garnered from the assessment process to dismantle systematic cultural barriers and promote resilience and cultural ways of knowing

Holism

The whole is greater than the sum of its parts

Wellness

A way of life oriented toward optimal health and well-being, in which body, mind, and spirit are integrated by the individual to live life more fully within the human and natural community

Microlevel wellness advocacy

Providing resources and tools to clients for their own learning about the mind-body connection

Mesolevel wellness advocacy

Refers to collaboration with other providers in the community to promote client wellness and coordination of care

Macrolevel wellness advocacy

Refers to collaborating with clients and communities to assess needs and develop individual and collective wellness

Problem orientation

The first step assesses how a problem is viewed and requires the client to recognize and accept the problem. With completion of this step, the client and counselor can begin to approach the problem in a systematic fashion as indicated by the problem-solving model

Problem identification

This step involves the counselor and the client attempting to identify the problem in as much detail as possible. A client is more likely to continue in counseling and to achieve positive outcomes if the counselor and client agree on the nature of the problem. Identification of the problem also aids in communication with others, such as referral sources, family, and friends.

Generation of alternatives

In this step, the counselor and client generate alternatives to help resolve the problem. Counselors use assessment procedures to assist clients in discovering strengths on which they can build to overcome difficulties or enhance development.

Decision-making

In this step, clients anticipate the consequences of the various alternatives. According to classical decision theory, choice is a function of the probability of success and the desirability of the outcome. This equation emphasizes the importance of assessing both the likelihood of success of various alternatives and the attractiveness of those alternatives for the client. Clients will usually want to consider alternatives that maximize the likelihood of a favorable outcome

Verification

In this final step, the counselor should discuss with the client how the client will know when the problem has been solved. This step requires that goals be clearly specified, that they be translated into specific behavioral objectives, and that the possibility for progress in accomplishing these goals be realistically viewed. Counselors need to verify the effectiveness of their interventions.

What is S-data?

Self-report data

What is O-data?

It is data based on the reports of others, such as teachers, supervisors, family members, and friends

Nomothetic assessment

Emphasis is placed on variables that show lawful or meaningful distinctions among people

Idiographic assessment

Emphasis is placed on those variables that can be most helpful is describing the individual

ASCA National Model

Provides guidelines for the use of a data-driven approach to support all students’ academic, social, psychological, and career needs

Multi-tiered system of supports

This is a prevention-based framework of evidence-based practices that maximize equity as well as positive academic and behavioral outcomes for all students

Group assessments

Allow information to be obtained from many people within a short period of time at relatively little cost

Individual assessments

Permit counselors to adapt the assessment administration to the needs of a client

Speed tests

Ability tests that place a heavy emphasis on speed of response

Power tests

Contain items of varying difficulty, most of which the person is expected to complete within specific time limits

Quantitative assessment

An assessment with multiple-choice items, items in a forced-choice format, or items on a rating scale

Qualitative assessment

An assessment that involves informal and flexible procedures to understand clients in their full complexity

Rating scales

Provide subjective estimates of various behaviors or characteristics based on the rater’s observations

Halo effect

Raters show a tendency to generalize one aspect of the client to all other aspects

Error of central tendency/restriction-of-range error

Described the tendency to rate all people as average

Leniency error

Refers to the tendency to rate the characteristics of people more favorably than they should be rated

Drift

Refers to systematic changes in how a variable is interpreted or defined over time

Decay

Refers to decreased reliability in how well an event is observed, usually as a function of an increased observation period

Semantic differential

A technique that requires raters to rate concepts by means of a series of bipolar scales or rank-order scales

Rank-order scales

Raters or clients assign numbers to items by priority level or relevance

Situational tests

Require the person to perform a task in a situation that is similar to the situation for which the person is being evaluated

Interviews

Can be structured, unstructured, or semistructured

Ethnography

The study of a cultural group or system within a natural or real-life setting

Ethnographic interviewing

Relies on systematic observation and inquiry over time to comprehensively understand individuals within their social and cultural context and thus their frame of reference

Behavioral observations

Refer to behaviors that can be observed and counted

Participant observation

Can be nonstructured. The counselors collects information as it emerges in interactions with the client

Projective assessments

Use vague or ambiguous stimuli to which people must respond

Story circle

An assessment technique that can be used in group or family counseling settings to elicit narratives related to counseling-related topic or presenting issue

Biographical measures

Refer to accomplishments or experiences as reported by the client or as reflected in historical records

Biodata

Information maintained in cumulative records by schools or in personnel records by businesses, such as academic grades, extracurricular activities, job promotions, hobbies, and volunteer work experiences

Graphic methods

Use pictures, drawings, images, or other spatial representations to assess the client

Ecomap

A tool used to identify and map a client’s social relationships and social systems with which they interact

Genogram

A graphic method to elicit information regarding family structure, family dynamics and communication patterns, and generational patterns of various issues and concerns

Body mapping

An arts-based and interviewing assessment method useful in individual and group counseling by which a client can demonstrate the bodily impact of significant events, distress, and so on.

Card sorts

An assessment tool used to foster and focus clients’ understanding of their attitudes, feelings, and values regarding a counseling topic

Lifelines

Visual depictions of an individual’s life events in chronological order

Self-characterizations

Client-generated data captured in self-descriptions, such as journals or diaries

Physiological data

Provide information on the biological components of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral processes that occur for the client

What are the stages of change?

Precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, and maintenance

Precontemplation stage

Individuals are not especially aware of their problems and have no plans to change their behavior in the foreseeable future

Contemplation stage

Individuals are aware of their problems but have not yet made a serious commitment to do anything about them

Preparation stage

Individuals have begun to make small changes in their problematic behaviors, with the intention of making more complete changes within 1 month

Action stage

They successfully change their behavior for short periods of time

Maintenance stage

The goal is to maintain the behavioral and attitudinal changes that have occurred

Assessment selection

Refers to the decision-making process counselors use throughout the counseling relationship to aid in client evaluation and treatment planning, using a wide range of quantitative and qualitative assessment methods

Assessment administration

Vary as a process depending on the audience, purpose, and format

Expectancy/Rosenthal effect

This effect relates to the notion that data can sometimes be affected by what the administrator expects to find

Stereotype threat

Counselors who seek to confirm negative stereotypes during test administration can influence performance

Feedback-enhanced therapy

The therapeutic process is heavily directed by a feedback loop of clinical data

Response to intervention

An approach increasingly being used in school settings as a part of MTSS

Clinical satisfaction forms

Assess the degree to which counseling fulfilled the client’s expectations

Client self-report scales

Used to evaluate changes in a client’s status or functioning as perceived by the client

Client self-monitoring

Used as part of homework that counselors assign