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Dwight D. Eisenhower
Leader of the Allied forces in Europe during WW2, led troops in Africa and commanded in D-Day invasion. Became the 34th president of the US in 1963.
Nikita Khrushchev
Soviet premier from 1958-1964. Reduced government control of USSR citizens and attempted to seek peaceful coexistence with the West instead of confrontation. Famous for denouncing Stalin's methods. However, he was still an aggressive leader during Eisenhower's years and caused tensions with the US.
John Foster Dulles
United States diplomat and Secretary of State under Eisenhower that pursued a policy of opposition to the USSR by providing aid to American allies. He viewed the struggle against communism as a classic conflict between good and evil. Believed in containment and the Eisenhower doctrine. He wanted to "roll back" on communism.
Dulles Diplomacy
Believed that if the US pushed communists to the brink of war, they would back down because of America's nuclear superiority. This method was called "brinkmanship."
Brinkmanship
A 1956 term used by Secretary of State John Dulles to describe a policy of risking war in order to protect national interests.
Eisenhower Doctrine
Eisenhower proposed and obtained a joint resolution from Congress authorizing the use of U.S. military forces to intervene in any country that appeared likely to fall to communism. Used in the Middle East. Focus on nukes more than conventional forces.
Warsaw Pact (1955)
A collective defense treaty between the Soviet Union and other Eastern European nations. Provided for a unified military command and the systematic ability to strengthen the Soviet hold over the other participating countries (Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland and Romania). This was in response to the NATO.
Baghdad Pact (1955)
A military alliance supported by the West that united the defenses of Iraq, Turkey, Pakistan, and Iran (+Britain, kind of) to counter the threat of the expansion of the Soviet Union. Egypt (President Naseer) refused to join because they sided with the USSR to crush Israel. Main purpose of the Baghdad Pact was to prevent communist incursions and foster peace in the Middle East. It was renamed the Central Treaty Organization, or CENTO, in 1959 after Iraq pulled out of the Pact.
Hungarian Revolution (1956)
Encouraged by Khrushchev's De-Stalinzation, Liberals in Hungary attempted to overthrow the Soviet-backed Communist leadership of the country. The USSR used very repressive means to put down the revolution. Thousands of Hungarian refugees were allowed to come to Canada as immigrants. Hungary never again experienced Stalinist-type domination and exploitation and experienced a slow evolution toward some internal autonomy.
Suez Canal Crisis (1956)
Egypt's president, Abdul Gamal Nasser, nationalized the Suez Canal in 1956 in response to Eisenhower's defunding of the Aswan High Dam. Egypt was attacked by British, French and Israeli forces. Nasser closed the canal, trapping ships and creating an oil crisis for Western Europe. Damaged Britain and France's standing as world powers. US, enraged by the British, French, and Israelis introduced cease-fire resolution in UN supported by USSR.
De-Stalinzation Speech (1956)
Khrushchev's policy of liberalization of the Stalinist system that meant producing more consumer goods, greater cultural freedom, and peaceful coexistence with the West. End to the role of large-scale forced labour in the economy. Freed Gulag prisoners
Sputnik (1957)
First man-made satellite put into orbit by the USSR. This caused fear in the US that the Soviets had passed them by in the arms race. Democrats scorched the Republican administration of Eisenhower for allowing the United States to fall so far behind the communists. Eisenhower responded by speeding up the U.S. space program (NASA), which resulted in the launching of the satellite Explorer I on January 31, 1958. The "space race" had begun. In 1969, the US would land men on the moon, a major victory.
Explorer I (1958)
First satellite launched by the US
14 July Revolution (1958)
Pro-Western Iraqi King Faisal is removed by General Abdul Karim Kassim because of widespread disapproval of Western influence (exacerbated by the formation of the Baghdad Pact and King Faisal's support of the British-led invasion of Egypt during the Suez Crisis, Egypt and Iraq also NOT friends). Kassim becomes head of the newly formed Republic of Iraq. Iraq begins to receive support from the USSR and maintains close ties with the Soviets throughout the Cold War.
Second Taiwan Strait Crisis (1958)
China/CCP attacked offshore islands held by Taiwan/GMD (nationalists). Khrushchev sent Eisenhower a letter saying that USSR would do anything to protect China if US attacked them, Eisenhower ignored it and sent fleet, re-supplying ROC garrisons on Jinmen and Mazu. This brought an abrupt end to the bombardment and eased the crisis. Eventually, the PRC and ROC came to an arrangement in which they shelled each other's garrisons on alternate days. This continued for twenty years until the PRC and the United States normalized relations.
Second Berlin Crisis (1958)
-This crisis developed when Khrushchev reacted negatively to nuclear warheads placed in West Germany.
-USSR issued the first Berlin Ultimatum (ultimatum giving the Western Powers six months to agree to withdraw from Berlin and make it a free, demilitarized city). This move was intended to force the West to reopen negotiations on the future of Germany.
-Geneva Conference to discuss: Allies offered to limit garrisons in West Berlin, but wanted free elections after Germany was reunified. Conference a failure, no agreement, but it diffused the situation.
-Demonstrated that neither the Western or Eastern blocs could unilaterally change the city's status without the risk of direct confrontation.
Cuban Revolution (1953-1959)
Political revolution that removed the United States-supported Fugencio Batista from power. Began with a failed assault on the Cuban military barracks. After this, Fidel Castro, Che Guevara, and the other revolutionary members fled into the forest and used guerrilla tactics to win. The revolution was led by Fidel Castro who became the new leader of Cuba as a communist dictator.
Guerrilla Tactics
Referring to surprise attacks or raids rather than organized warfare, use of unexpected maneuvers (sabotage, subterfuge) to fight an enemy
Formation of the NLF (Viet Cong) (1959)
The Vietnamese Communist insurgent movement is formed, vowing to overthrow the anti-communist South Vietnamese regime. It is supplied extensively by North Vietnam and the USSR eventually.
Test Ban Talks (1957-1959)
-Following launch of Sputnik in 1957, USSR proposed a 2-3 year suspension of nuclear tests beginning 1958.
-US counter-proposed a test suspension and weapons cutoff, but USSR refused.
-In 1958, the USSR announced that they were beginning an indefinite suspension of nuclear test program, called on US and GB to follow suit. But US and GB refused.
-However, later that year, the US/GB suspended their nuclear tests for one year, and asked USSR to do the same. Lasted 3 years.
-Geneva Test Ban Conference (1958) was deadlocked over inspection issue. USSR did NOT want anyone inspecting their stuff. Two sides could not agree on a lot of things.
-1959 Khrushchev proposed a small number of annual inspections, and Eisenhower agreed.
-Talks halted when Edward Teller (leader of hydrogen bomb creation) said that USSR might be testing nukes in caverns underground.
Antarctic Treaty (1959)
One of the first multilateral environmental treaties. Demilitarized the Antarctic, provided for full multilateral inspection, prohibited the dumping of radioactive waste there, set aside territorial claims for future resolution, and established a regime under which various states conduct scientific research in Antarctica.
U-2 Spy Plane Incident (1960)
On 1 May 1960, a United States U-2 spy plane was shot down by the Soviet Air Defense Forces while conducting photographic aerial reconnaissance deep inside Soviet territory. Soviets presented the pilot on National Soviet TV to prove that US is spying on them. USSR/US initiate a trade between the spies in Potsdam across a bridge. Caused the Paris Summit to fail.
Paris Summit (1960)
This event was meant to discuss the situation in Berlin and a nuclear test ban treaty, but quickly became a fiasco when Khrushchev confronted Eisenhower in a rage about the U-2 Spy Plane Incident. Khrushchev demanded an apology, but Eisenhower refused. The conference collapsed before it could even begin.
Congo Crisis (1960)
Following independence from Belgium, the First Republic of the Congo faced a number of difficulties. When their prime minister requested support from the Soviet Union, President Eisenhower countered by supporting Congolese rivals to remove the PM. In the end, the rival gained power and the prime minster was assassinated. More favorable gov in Congo for the US. Marked more US/USSR competition in the Third World.
Laos Crisis (1960)
Political and military crisis in Laos that arose from tensions between the communist Pathet Lao and the pro-Western government, leading to armed clashes and political instability. Reflected the struggle for influence between the United States and the Soviet Union in Southeast Asia.
Pathet Lao
Leading communist party in Laos, similar to the Cambodian Khmer Rouge and Vietnamese Vietminh.
Sino-Soviet Split (1960)
The Chinese leadership, angered at being treated as the "junior partner" to the Soviet Union (due to USSR termination of nuclear assistance and lack of help during 2nd Taiwan Strait Crisis), declared its version of Communism superior and began to compete with the Soviets for influence, thus adding a third dimension to the Cold War.
Impact of Eisenhower Years on Cold War (1953-1961)
-Eisenhower reopened dialogue with Soviet leadership that had been disrupted under Truman
-Red Scare raged during his first term, which did not improve USSR relations
-Dulles and other officials opposed a conciliatory approach toward the USSR, Eisenhower also didn't trust Soviets
-Eisenhower refused to curb US reliance on nuclear weapons and failed to stop U-2 spy flights over USSR, which doomed any nuclear test ban treaty
-growing USSR/US rivalry in the Third World (US confused communism with anticolonial movements)
-US allied itself with dictatorships to prevent communism from spreading
-Eisenhower was more bellicose (willing to fight, send troops) in Third World insurgencies than with China or USSR
-Khrushchev's eagerness to challenge US worldwide contributed to the spread of Cold War to Middle East, East Asia, Latin America, and Africa
-Khrushchev's aggressiveness motivated by the desire to expand Soviet influence and the perceived need to fend off challenge of China over leading communist movement
-Khrushchev more willing to engage US in nuclear arms race because USSR still vulnerable to an American strike
New President (1961)
John F. Kennedy is elected as 35th president of the US (1961-1963). Originally campaigned as being very "tough" on communism. Key achievements include the Cuban Missile Crisis, the creation of the Peace Corps, and advocacy for civil rights. Heavily involved in Vietnam War. Assassinated in 1963.
Alliance for Progress (1961)
Initiated by President John F. Kennedy, the Alliance for Progress was a program aimed at promoting economic development and social reform in Latin America. It sought to counter the spread of communism by fostering economic growth and political stability through aid and cooperation. While it achieved some successes, it faced challenges such as corruption and inequality. It achieved NONE of its goals. Distribution of wealth remained grossly inequitable and most of Latin America's govs remained under military control.
Bay of Pigs Invasion (1961)
Failed CIA-backed invasion of Cuba by Cuban exiles, aimed at overthrowing Fidel Castro's communist regime. The invasion embarrassed the United States, exposed its covert operations, and strengthened Castro's position. It heightened Cold War tensions and led to increased Soviet support for Cuba, including the placement of nuclear missiles, which precipitated the Cuban Missile Crisis.
Vienna Summit (1961)
Meeting between Khrushchev and Kennedy, where Khrushchev threatened to sign a peace treaty with East Germany and cut off Western access to Berlin. Kennedy, on the other hand, advocated for the freedom of West Berlin and reaffirmed the United States' commitment to defend it. He refused to be bullied, yet failed to reach a consensus. This contributed to the later escalation of the Berlin Crisis and building of the Berlin Wall.
However, both US and USSR agreed to support the status quo of one country: Laos. Kennedy refused to become militarily involved there, as Eisenhower once wanted to be.
Geneva Conference (1961-1962)
US and USSR agreed that the Pathet Lao would share power in a coalition government headed by the neutralists Premier Souvanna Phouma. Agreement called for the neutralization and independence of Laos and withdrawal of all foreign troops.
Berlin Crisis/Building of Berlin Wall (1961)
-USSR built the Berlin Wall, separating East and West Berlin to stem the mass exodus of East Germans to the West. Solidified the division of Germany and Berlin, symbolizing the ideological and physical separation between the communist East and the democratic West.
-Crisis heightened fears of a potential military conflict between NATO and the Warsaw Pact. Khrushchev suspended reductions in size of Soviet army and ordered a one-third increase in military spending.
-Kennedy responded militarily, sending 1,500 soldiers. However, crisis diffused when Kennedy rejected advice to knock down the Berlin Wall and accepted Khrushchev's proposals for a settlement.
-Khrushchev announced that he was resuming nuclear weapons tests. Kennedy did the same.
"Flexible Response" Strategy (1961)
A policy, developed by Robert McNamara during the Kennedy administration, that involved preparing for a variety of military responses (conventional, antiguerrilla, covert action, diplomacy) to international crises rather than focusing on the use of nuclear weapons. Allowed US to respond "anywhere, at anytime, with weapons and forces appropriate to the situation."
Peace Corps Established (1961)
a program aimed at promoting peace and friendship by sending American volunteers to work on development projects in countries around the world. The Peace Corps embodies Kennedy's vision of global citizenship and service, providing assistance in areas such as education, healthcare, agriculture, and infrastructure.
Robert S. McNamara
Secretary of Defense from 1961-1968, he was the author of the "flexible response" doctrine, which created a variety of military options and avoided a stark choice between nuclear warfare and none at all. As defense secretary, he was the chief architect of the Vietnam War.
Green Berets (1962)
Special counterinsurgency force that were created to deal with communist guerrillas.
Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)
-13-day confrontation between US and USSR, sparked by discovery of Soviet ballistic missile installations in Cuba.
-In response, President John F. Kennedy imposed a naval "quarantine" (since BLOCKADE is an act of WAR, wording is SUPER important!) on Cuba and demanded the removal of the missiles.
-Tensions escalated rapidly as both sides engaged in brinkmanship, with the world anxiously watching the standoff unfold. However, through intense diplomatic negotiations and backchannel communications, Kennedy and Khrushchev reached a peaceful resolution.
-Khrushchev agreed to dismantle the missile sites in exchange for a public commitment from the United States not to invade Cuba and a secret agreement to remove U.S. missiles from Turkey.
-The resolution of the Cuban Missile Crisis is seen as a triumph of diplomacy and crisis management, averting the immediate threat of nuclear war and leading to improved communication channels between the superpowers.
Sino-North Korean Mutual Aid and Cooperation Friendship Treaty (1962)
North Korea and China sign a defensive treaty. The treaty was a response to shared concerns about the presence of American military forces in South Korea and Japan, as well as to the evolving dynamics of the Sino-Soviet split. China pledged to provide military and economic assistance to North Korea in the event of aggression, while North Korea agreed to support China in similar circumstances.
"Ich bin ein Berliner" Speech (1963)
-A quotation of JFK's speech in West Berlin. Widely regarded as the best-known speech of the Cold War and the most famous anti-communist speech.
-Kennedy aimed to underline the support of the United States for West Germany 22 months after Soviet-occupied East
Germany erected the Berlin Wall to prevent mass emigration to the West. The message was aimed as much at the
Soviets as it was at Berliners and was a clear statement of U.S. policy in the wake of the construction of the Berlin
Wall.
-The speech is considered one of Kennedy's best, both a notable moment of the Cold War and a high point of the New
Frontier. It was a great morale boost for West Berliners, who lived in an enclave deep inside East Germany and
feared a possible East German occupation.
Limited Test Ban Treaty (1963)
-Treaty signed by the US, GB, USSR, and 100 other nations that banned nuclear weapons tests in the atmosphere, outer space, and underwater. Negotiated in the aftermath of the Cuban Missile Crisis, the treaty aimed to reduce nuclear tensions and the environmental and health risks associated with nuclear testing.
-Significant step towards nuclear disarmament and arms control during the Cold War. By prohibiting nuclear tests in the atmosphere, it helped mitigate the global spread of radioactive fallout and signaled a shift towards greater cooperation between the superpowers in managing the nuclear arms race.
Kennedy and China (1961-1963)
-Kennedy considered state of Sino-American relations "irrational" and wanted to improve relations. However, neither Kennedy nor Congress were willing to abandon Taiwan. US still not willing to recognize Communist China and its admission to the UN.
-supported India in its border dispute with China by providing Indians with weapons and transport planes
-pushed the Limited Test Ban Treaty to try and persuade the Chinese to abandon nuclear efforts
-tried to enlist Khrushchev's help for join Soviet-American action against China, but Khrushchev didn't want to work with a capitalist nation to do so
-thus, China detonated its first nuclear device in 1964
Kennedy and Africa (1961-1963)
-Kennedy recognized Africa's strategic importance in the context of the Cold War rivalry. Aimed to counter Soviet influence by promoting American ideals of democracy, freedom, and economic development
-supported the process of decolonization, backing independence movements and advocating for the end of colonial rule. He saw decolonization as a means to advance self-determination and stability in the region.
-Alliance for Progress, initially focused on Latin America, also extended support to African countries. The program aimed to foster economic development and social reform, offering aid and investment to African nations to address poverty and inequality.
-established the Peace Corps in 1961, which sent American volunteers to work on development projects in African countries
-engaged directly with African leaders, hosting several African heads of state at the White House and undertaking diplomatic visits to Africa. These interactions aimed to strengthen ties with African nations and demonstrate American commitment to the continent's development and independence.
Kennedy and Vietnam (1961-1963)
-US role in Vietnam intensified
-Kennedy embraced Eisenhower's "Domino Effect" theory
-believed communist victory in Vietnam would expand China's influence in Indochina
-by 1961, Vietcong gained control of 80% of South Vietnam's villages. Kennedy was prepared to commit ground combat forces to Vietnam. Diem, however, turned down the offer because he did not want to lose Vietnamese independence to US.
-regarded counterinsurgency programs (ex. Green Berets) as the best way to prevent communist conquest of South Vietnam because he realized they did not have enough ground forces for Europe AND Vietnam
-Number of military advisers in South Vietnam increased from 700 to 16,700 by the time of Kennedy's death (1963)
-President Diem was not making necessary reforms to gain popularity in South Vietnam, so Kennedy withdrew 1,000 advisers and approved a CIA-sponsored coup against President Diem to overthrow him. Only a month before JFK's assassination.
Ngo Dinh Diem
American ally in South Vietnam from 1954 to 1963; his repressive regime caused the Communist Viet Cong to thrive in the South and required increasing American military aid to stop a Communist takeover. He was killed in a coup in 1963.
New President (1963)
Following the assassination of JFK, vice president Lyndon B. Johnson becomes the 36th US president. Escalated the war in Vietnam past the point of no return. However, passed civil rights legislation such as the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. He also implemented his "Great Society" agenda, which aimed to combat poverty and inequality through programs like Medicare, Medicaid, and the War on Poverty.
Johnson Doctrine (1963)
-declared that the US would provide military assistance to any country in the Western Hemisphere threatened by communist insurgency.
-Referred primarily to Soviet-backed movements in Latin America, such as Cuba, Guatemala, and Panama. Reflected Johnson's commitment to containing communism and protecting American interests in the region.
-led to increased U.S. involvement in Latin American affairs, including military interventions and support for anti-communist regimes. Often resulted in the support of repressive and authoritarian governments in the name of anticommunism.
Panama Anti-US Riots (1964)
-a series of violent protests and riots that occurred in the Panama Canal Zone, fueled by nationalist sentiment and demands for Panamanian sovereignty over the Canal Zone, which had been under U.S. control since the construction of the Panama Canal at the turn of the 20th century.
-protests escalated into clashes between Panamanian demonstrators and U.S. military forces, resulting in several fatalities and injuries on both sides.
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