Research Methods Exam 1

Chapter 1 to Chapter 7

Why is the research producer role important?

• Important for others to receive information without conducting research themselves

• Developing research methods

• Understanding how to discover new knowledge

Why is the research consumer role important?

• Helps encourage the role of the producers

• Helps with further research

• Develops the ability to read about research with curiosity and a critical eye

Describe the theory-data cycle

1. Theory

2. Research Questions

3. Design

4. Hypotheses

5. Data

Merton’s Scientific Norms

Universalism, Communality, Disinterestedness, Organized Skepticism

Why is research better than your own experience, your intuition or an authority figure?

Daily life does NOT include a comparable experience (if something changed, others couldn’t be sure what caused it)

Bushman venting study

Steve, a confederate, angered students about their papers. Then the students were split into three different groups. Group 1 was told to sit quietly after their experience with Steve, Group 2 was told to punch a punching bag, and Group 3 was told to use the punching bag and imagine Steve’s face. After this exercise, all three groups were given the chance to retaliate. Group 3, though differing from the original hypothesis, retaliated the most.

Availability Heuristic

things that pop up easily in our mind tend to guide our thinking (when events are more vivid/emotional, they come to mind easier which can lead to overestimation)

Present/Present Bias

reflects our failure to consider appropriate comparison groups and fails to look for absences or notice what’s present (noticing treatment only when desired outcome is present)

Confirmation Bias

tendency to only look at information that we want to believe

Bias Blind Spot

belief that we are unlikely to fall prey to biases (makes us trust own faulty thinking more)

Variable

something that varies

Constant

something that could potentially vary but that only has one level in a study

Measure variable

variable whose levels are simply observed and recorded

Manipulated variable

variable a researcher controls, usually by assigning participants to different levels

Independent variable

variable whose variation (or level) does not depend on that of another variable [x-value]

Dependent variable

variable whose value depends (and changes) on that of another [y-value]

Conceptual variable

any kind of concept, what you think the entity really is or what it means (you are describing a concept ex. happiness, self-esteem)

Operational definition

Specific way in which a concept of interest is measured or manipulated as a variable in a study

Operationalize

turn a conceptual definition of a variable into a specific measured variable or manipulated variable in order to conduct a research study

Frequency Claim

claim that describes a particular rate or degree of a single variable

Association claim

claims about two variables, in which the value (level) of one variable is said to vary systematically with the value of another variable

Correlational study

study that includes two or more variables, in which all of the variable are measured (can support association claim)

Positive association

association in which high levels of one variable go with high levels of the other variable, and low levels of one variable go with low levels of the other variable (ex. high level of exercise —> high level of pay)

Negative association

association in which high levels of one variable go with low levels of the other variable (ex. high levels of exercise —> low levels of depression)

Zero association

Lack of systematic association between two variables (ex. temperature vs. color of shirt)

Causal Claim

claim arguing that a specific change in one variable is responsible for influencing the value of another variable

What are the three requirements for causation?

1. must establish 2 variables

2. must show that causal variable came first

3. must establish no other explanations exist for the relationship

Tuskegee Syphilis Study

Poor black men in the South who had syphilis were participants in a study where scientists infused the men with toxic metals. They were never told what the study was about and scientists often let infected men die instead of giving them real treatment. The study was finally condemned in 1972.

How does the Tuskegee syphilis study illustrate ethics violations?

1. the men were not treated respectfully

2. the men were harmed

3. scientists targeted a disadvantaged group

Milgram Study

The participant was asked to take on the role of “teacher” in this experiment and shock the “learner” every time they got a question wrong. The learner was a confederate and the shocks were not real, but the “teacher” was not aware of these facts. If the “teacher” protested, one of the scientists would encourage/demand that they continue. The experiment was made to understand the extent of obedience in humans

Argument in favor of the Milgram study

• Benefited society with the knowledge of obedience

Argument against the Milgram study

• Patients were not properly debriefed and some patients suffered from PTSD

What are the three main principles of the Belmont Report?

Respect for Persons, Beneficence, and Justice

Principle of Respect for Persons

An ethical principle from the Belmont Report stating that research participants should be treated as autonomous agents and that certain groups deserve special protection

Principle of Beneficence

ethical principle from the Belmont Report stating that researchers must take precautions to protect participants from harm and to promote their well-being

Principle of Justice

ethical principle from the Belmont Report calling for a fair balance between the kinds of people who benefit from it

What is the IRB?

Institutional Review Board: committee responsible for ensuring that research using human participants is conducted ethically

Is deception always unethical?

No, as long as participants are debriefed afterwards

What is debriefing?

to inform participants afterward about a study’s true nature, details and hyptheses

Self-report measure

method of measuring a variable in which people answer questions about themselves in a questionnaire or interview

Observational measure

method of measuring a variable by recording observable behaviors or physical traces of behavior

Physiological measures

method of measuring a variable by recording biological data

Categorical variables

variables who levels are categories

Quantitative variable

variable whose values can be recorded as meaningful numbers

Types of Quantitative variables

Ordinal, interval, ratio

Ordinal Scale

quantitative measurement scale whose levels represent a variable order, and in which distances between levels are not equal

Interval scale

quantitative measurement scale that has no ‘true zero’ and in which the numerals represent equal intervals between levels

Ratio scale

quantitative measured scale in which the numericals have equal intervals and the value of zero is truly none of the variables being measured

Types of reliability

Interrater, test-retest, and internal

Test-retest reliability

consistency in results every time a measure is used

Interrater reliability

degree to which two or more coders or observers give consistent ratings of a set of targets

Internal reliability

the extent to which multiple measures, or items, are all answered the same by the same set of people

face validity

extent to which a measure is subjective considered a plausible operationalization of the conceptual variable in question

Content validity

extent to which a measures captive all parts of a defined construct

Criterion validity

empirical form of measurement validity that established the extent to which a measure is associated with a behavioral outcome with which it should be associated

Convergent validity

empirical test of the extent to which a self-report measure correlates with other measures of a theoretically similar construct

discriminant validity

empirical test of the extent to which a self-report measure does not correlate strongly with measures of theoretically dissimilar constructs

leading question

type of question in a survey that is problematic because its wording encourages one response more than others, thereby weakening its construct validity

negatively worded question

question in a survey that contains negatively phased statements, making its wording complicated or confusing and potentially weakening its construct validity

Double-barred Question

type of question in a survey that is problematic because it asks two questions in one, thereby weakening its construct validity

Forced-Choice Questions

survey question format in which respondents give their opinion by picking the best of two or more options

Likert scales

survey question format using a rating scale containing multiple response options anchored by the specific terms

• strongly agree, agree, neither agree nor disagree, disagree, strongly disagree

Open-ended questions

survey question format that allows respondents to answer any way they like

Semantic Differential Format

survey question format using a response scale whose numbers are anchored with contrasting adjectives

Response set

shortcut respondents may use to answer items in a long survey, rather than responding to the content of each item

Faking Bad

giving answers on a survey that make one look worse than one really is

Faking good

giving answers on a survey that make one looks better than one really is

Observer bias

bias that occurs when observation expectations influence the interpretation of participant behavior or the outcomes of a study

Observer Effect

change in behavior of study participants in the direction of observer expectations

Reactivity

change in behavior of study participants because they’re aware they are being watched

Population

larger group from which a sample is drawn; the group to which a study’s conclusions are intended to be applied [population of interest]

Sample

group of people, animals, or cases used in a study; a subset of the population of interest

What is the difference between a population and a sample?

A population, or population of interest, is who the study is intended to benefit. A sample is who the study is observing/studying

What is convenience sampling and is it biased or unbiased?

Choosing a sample based on who is easiest to access and readily available; biased

What is self-selection and it is biased or unbiased?

Form of sampling where a sample contains only people who volunteer to participate; biased

What is probability sampling and it is biased or unbiased?

Category for random sampling techniques where a sample is drawn from a population of interest so each member has an equal and known chance of being included in the sample; unbiased

What is simple random sampling and is it biased or unbiased?

Most basic form of probability sample in which the sample is chosen completely at random from the population of interest; unbiased

What is systematic sampling and is it biased or unbiased?

Sampling technique in which the researchers use a random chosen number, N, and counts off every Nth member of the population to achieve a sample; unbiased

What is cluster sampling and is it biased or unbiased?

Clusters of participants within the population of interest are selected at random followed by data collection from all individuals in each cluster; unbiased

What is multistage sampling and is it biased or unbiased?

Uses at least 2 stages —> a random sample of clusters followed by a random sample of people within the selected clusters; unbiased

What is stratified sampling and is it biased or unbiased?

researchers identify particular demographic categories and then randomly select individuals within each category; unbiased

Stratified vs. Cluster

• Strata are meaningful categories whereas clusters are arbitrary

• Final sample size of strata reflects a portion of the population whereas clusters are not selected with this in mind

What is purposive sampling and is it biased or unbiased?

Only contains kind of people that are included in a sample; biased

What is snowball sampling and is it biased or unbiased?

participants are asked to recommend acquaintances for the study; biased

What is quota sampling and is it biased or unbiased?

researchers identify subsets of the population of interest, set a target number for each category in the sample, and non-randomly select individuals within each category until the quotas are filled; biased

Daniel’s teacher tells him that his theory about dating is not strong because it is not falsifiable. What does she mean?

Daniel’s theory cannot be disproven

Which of the following is primarily a consumer of research information?

marriage and family counselor

Which of the following characteristics sets scientific journals apart from magazines?

They are peer-reviewed

Psychological scientists base their conclusions on the evidence. They collect data and use it to develop, support, or challenge a theory. This approach is known as ______

Empiricism

Which of the following is true of publishing in the field of psychology?

Publishing in psychology involves a peer-review process

Which of the following outlines the correct order of steps in the theory-data cycle?

Theory, research design, hypothesis, data

A school district decides to compare a new math textbook to the textbook that has been in use for the past few years. Each of the fourth graders in one school is assigned to be in one of two classes, one in which a teacher continues using the old book and another in which a new teacher uses the new book. The school administrators compare the average scores of the two classes on a mathematics standardized test at the end of the year to determine which book is better. Which of the following is a potential confound in this study?

The teachers have different amounts of experience using the books

All other things being equal, the simplest solution is the best. Which principle does this describe?

Parsimony

Carolyn sometimes taps on the basketball before shooting a free throw. She has noticed the times when she taps and makes the free throw more than she notices the times she makes the free throw without tapping the ball. Carolyn is experiencing the _____

Present/present bias

Seligman proposed that animals who cannot escape an aversive outcome don’t even try to avoid the aversive experience later when they can escape it because they don’t perceive themselves as having control (learned helplessness). Latecia thinks this concept may apply to people’s working conditions. She conducts a study and has 20 research participants work in an office space with some dilapidated supplies. The participants are split into two rooms. In one workroom, Latecia offers to replace any of the run-down supplies with newer items. In another workroom, Latecia tells the participants that they have to work with what they have. After a few days of working with this set-up, both groups’ workspaces now include both the old and new supplies. She predicts that the participants who had to work with the dilapidated supplies for the first few days of the study will continue to use the less functional supplies on the last day, even when there are new supplies available in the room. Her prediction that the participants who had to work with the dilapidated supplies for the first few days of the study would continue to use the less functional supplies on the last day would best be described as which of the following?

a hypothesis

The idea that things that easily come to tend to guide our thinking is known as which of the following?

Availability heuristic

Franchesca read about Elliot et al.'s (2007) study in which students scored lower on a

cognitive test when the test had a red booklet cover. Franchesca is interested in the idea

that the color red influences the perception of caution. Franchesca decides to conduct a

similar study in which she has students rate themselves on several achievement-related

characteristics, including critical reasoning skills, vocabulary, and math ability. Like the

original study, the students write their self-ratings in booklets of either red, green, or white

color. Franchesca predicts that, in line with the original study, students with red booklets

would rate themselves lower than students with white or green booklets. Franchesca runs

the study and finds that the results match her prediction. Franchesca's process of

conducting a study to evaluate whether the influence of the color red extends to self-ratings

can best be described as which of the following?

theory-data cycle

______ by Cartwright-Hatton and his colleagues summarizes 10 studies on the effectiveness of cognitive behavior therapy as a treatment for anxiety disorders of childhood and adolescence

Review journal article

Dimitri is interested is understanding the effects of sleep deprivation on short-term memory. Which of the following is an empirical approach Dimirti could take to answer this question?

design and execute a study which measure short-term memory function following different amounts of sleep

Which of the following is the term used in psychology to describe a person who is an actor playing a specific role as part of an experiment?

Confederate