chapter 7 and 10

Encoding

Getting information to memory.

Levels-of-processing theory

The deeper we process something, the better we retain it.

Structural encoding

Emphasizes the physical structure of a stimulus.

Phonemic encoding

Emphasizes what a word sounds like.

Semantic encoding

Emphasizes the meaning of the verbal input.

Elaboration

A technique to enhance deeper encoding by adding details.

Imagery

Using mental images to enhance memory recall.

Mnemonics

Rhyme or trick used to help memorize information.

Sensory Memory

The first storage system where information exists in its original sensory form.

Short-Term Memory

Conscious processing of information lasting around 30 seconds.

Long-Term Memory

Unlimited capacity storage of information that can last indefinitely.

Retrieval

Taking information out of storage.

Context cues

External factors that aid in recalling memories.

Encoding specificity principle

We retrieve information better in the same context it was learned.

State-dependent memory

Better recall of information when in the same state as during learning.

Chunking

Organizing information into familiar units to enhance memory.

Baddeley's Working Memory Model

Consists of four components: Phonological Loop, Visuospatial Sketchpad, Central Executive, Buffer.

Procedural memory

Memory for actions and how to perform tasks.

Declarative memory

Memory for facts that requires more effort to remember.

Serial Position Effect

Best recall of first and last items in a list; forgetting the middle items.

False Memory Study, 1995

Study showing memory can be influenced by misleading information.

Reconstructive process

Memory retrieval involves reconstructing the memory, not just playing it back.

Flashbulb memories

Vivid memories of shocking events that may not be entirely accurate.

Misinformation effect

When misleading information affects a person's memory of an event.

Forgetting Curve

Ebbinghaus's model showing rapid forgetting initially, then leveling off.

Decay theory

Memory fades over time if not rehearsed.

Proactive interference

Older information interferes with the learning of newer information.

Retroactive interference

New information interferes with the recall of older information.

Motivated forgetting

Repression of memories, usually unpleasant.

Hippocampus

Brain region essential for transferring short-term memories to long-term.

Cognitive Development

The progression of thinking and reasoning abilities over time.

Attachment

Emotional bond formed between a caregiver and an infant.

Secure Attachment

A strong, healthy bond between caregiver and child, usually resulting in positive outcomes.

Avoidant Attachment

Lack of apparent bond with caregiver; child appears indifferent.

Anxious/Ambivalent Attachment

Clinginess and distress in the presence of a caregiver; inability to engage independently.

Stage theories of development

Sequential stages of development that relate to age and are marked by significant changes.

Erik Erikson's stages

Eight stages in a lifetime, each with a psychosocial crisis affecting personality.

Piaget’s Cognitive Development Stages

Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operational, Formal Operational.

Vygotsky’s Theory

Emphasizes social contexts and guided participation in learning.

Lawrence Kohlberg's Moral Reasoning

Three levels of moral reasoning: Preconventional, Conventional, Postconventional.

Criticism of Kohlberg’s Theory

Stage mixing, reliance on unrealistic scenarios, and neglecting cultural differences.