Developmental Psych (AP Psych)

cross-sectional studies

compares one cohort with another and is done within a shorter time period

longitudinal studies

studies the same group over a long period of time; it’s more time consuming and needs to account for drop-out rate; can see effects of changes in individuals over time

cohort effects

occurs when research results are skewed by shared social, cultural, or historical experiences of a specific generation (e.g. WWII, COVID-19 pandemic), rather than true age-related changes

continuity theories

development is gradual and difficult to notice changes

discontinuity/stage theories

there are stages and changes that occur dramatically and obviously (these stages are unchanging/universal)

maturation

refers to development that largely unfolds on its own, as according to a biological program in a reasonably supportive environment (mostly universal)

critical periods

a specific, limited maturational stage during which the brain is ready to acquire a specific skill or behavior such as talking or vision (usually happens during childhood). if missed, developing the ability later is more difficult or almost impossible.

socialization

refers to the impact of social environment on development. it is an ongoing process in which culturally desirable skills, attitudes, and behaviors are shaped by society.

teratogens, maternal illnesses, environmental factors, genetic mutations, hormones

prenatal influences

teratogens

(prenatal influence) agents that can reach embryo/fetus and cause harm prenatally

rooting reflex

when you touch a newborn on the cheek, he/she will turn and “root” for food source

fine motor skills

movement of small muscles for intricate tasks (e.g. eating, grabbing, drawing, stacking blocks)

gross motor skills

movement of large muscles for more “bigger” movements (e.g. walking, throwing, sitting)

visual cliff

At around 6-14 months old, babies develop depth perception, which is tested by this experiment. Most infants refuse to cross the “____ ___”, showing that depth perception is linked to survival.

critical period for sensation

typically during the very first years of life (during infancy)

critical period for language acquisition

goes from the first few years of life to adolescence (and puberty)

phoneme

basic sounds of any language (there is a distinction across languages)

morpheme

smallest linguistic unit that carries meaning

semantics

the study of meaning in language, covering the interpretation of words, phrases, and sentences

syntax

the set of rules, principles, and processes that govern the structure of sentences in a language, such as word order and phrase arrangement

baby language

At this age, they can only communicate with one-word or cooing, babbling, or telegraphic speech.

overgeneralization

During language acquisition, kids typically apply regular grammar rules to words which those grammar rules do not apply.

ex: “I goed to the store!” (it should be “I went to the store”)

habituation

a baby decreases its response to a stimulus over continued exposure to it; they get “used to it”

infantile amnesia

the inability to recall autobiographical events from early childhood; a side effect of normal brain development

piaget theory

4 stages of cognitive development: 1. sensorimotor stage, 2. preoperational stage, 3. concrete operational stage, 4. formal operational stage

sensorimotor stage

birth - 2 yrs old

exploring and learning about environment through senses and motor abilities

object permanence (4-8 months), separation anxiety, stranger anxiety

object permanence

characteristic of the sensorimotor stage; understanding that things out of sight still exist

preoperational stage

2 - 7 yrs old

moves from parallel to pretend play, which shows symbolic thinking

language development, animism (inanimate objects have feelings)

begin as very egocentric but develop theory of mind towards age 4

symbolic thinking

one thing represents something else; characteristic of the preoperational stage

curse of knowledge

when a person develops specialized knowledge or understands a topic, they assume others share their knowledge; characteristic of the preoperational stage

ex: “dogs are fluffy and have tails”

“bro what dogs dont have fur”

egocentrism

inability to take/consider others’ perspectives; characteristic of the preoperational stage

theory of mind

ability to take/consider others’ perspectives; characteristic of the preoperational stage

concrete operational stage

7 - 11 yrs old

logical thinking, conservation, reversibility

conservation

idea that the amount of something does not change based on arrangement appearance; characteristic of concrete operational stage

ex: 3 × 2 = 2 × 3

reversibility

idea that things cane be changed and changed back; characteristic of concrete operational stage

formal operational stage

11+ yrs old

abstract and hypothetical thinking

can consider future possibilities and imaginary scenarios

social learning theory

focused on social interaction/context rather than biological maturation; learn gender behavior by observing, imitating, and receiving rewards/punishments

zone of proximal development

divides between what a child knows and can do on their own and what they have the “potential” to do with a supportive environment

scaffolding

developmental technique that uses temporary support (breaking down tasks, modeling, prompts) to help a learner master a skill beyond their current capability

ex: demonstrating to a kid how to tie their shoes

imprinting

animals (and sometimes humans) form a strong bond with the first thing they see, perceiving it as a “parent”

ex: Konrad Lorenz replaced a mother duck with himself. The baby ducklings imprinted on Lorenz and followed him around.

contact comfort

babies and children need physical touch and nurturance to form an attachment with their parent

strange situations

An observational study developed by Mary Ainsworth in the 1970s monitored children when with their mother, without their mother, and when the mother returned. This determined 4 attachment styles.

secure

attachment style; confidence, self-worth, accepts support

anxious

attachment style; clingy, highly emotional, seeking reassurance

avoidant

attachment style; distant, unemotional, avoids closeness

disorganised

attachment style; intense, push-pull, unpredictable

temperament

relates to (emotional) reactivity of nervous system of infants (e.g. high-reactive, low-reactive)

ACEs

Adverse Childhood Experiences; traumatic events that occurs before the age of adulthood; different in sociocultures around the world

ex: Romanian Orphanage Case Study

separation anxiety

often begins @ 6-9 months; distress when separated from parent/caregiver

authoritarian parenting

little warmth, high expectations, punishment, clear rules, emotionally distant, structured environments

authoritative parenting

responsive, clear standards, assertive, democratic, flexible, high expectations, reciprocal

permissive parenting

avoid confrontation, few rules, accepting, lenient/indulgent, non-directive, low expectations

uninvolved parenting

competing priorities, little time, absent, uninterested, neglectful, passive

Erik Erikson stages

Stage theory that focuses on the psychosocial development across lifespan, falls in 8 stages

stage 1

Trust vs. Mistrust: age 0-1; can a baby trust the world to fulfill his/her needs?; basic trust, effects can carry on for the rest of his/her life

stage 2

Autonomy vs Shame & Doubt: age 2-3; toddlers begin to control their bodies (toilet training); the word “no” can make a big impact on the toddler’s reaction; can they learn control or will they doubt themselves?

stage 3

Initiative vs. Guilt: age 4-6; turns from NO to WHY?; is curiosity encouraged or discouraged?

stage 4

Industry vs. Inferiority: age 6-puberty; school begins and we are evaluated by formal system/peers; do we feel good about accomplishments or “not good enough”?; can lead to inferiority complex

stage 5

Identity vs. Confusion: teenage yrs; trying out different roles; who am I? where do I fit in?; can lead to an identity crisis; role of familial identity

stage 6

Intimacy vs. Isolation: early adulthood yrs; examining priorities; developing relationships

stage 7

Generativity vs. Stagnation: middle adulthood yrs; have I created what I want in life or am I stuck?; midlife crisis

stage 8

Integrity vs. Despair: late adulthood yrs; was my life meaningful? do I have regrets?

diffusion

little sense of identity

ex: “I don’t know what I want to be when I grow up”

foreclosure

premature commitment to an identity

ex: “My parents are doctors so I’m going to be a doctor”

moratorium

more actively seeking meaningful identity

achievement

committed sense of self

gender identity

sense of being a boy or girl or a different gender than those two

microsystem

immediate, direct-contact groups to the child (Ecological Systems Theory)

ex: home, school, community

mesosystem

relationships between microsystem groups (Ecological Systems Theory)

ex: parents and peers

exosystem

environments that indirectly affect a person (Ecological Systems Theory)

ex: a parent’s workplace

macrosystem

cultural influences (Ecological Systems Theory)

ex: values, beliefs, economic and political systems

chronosystems

life stage and related events (Ecological Systems Theory)

ex: moving houses, economic recession, COVID-19 pandemic

social identity

the part of an individual’s identity that is derived from perceived membership in relevant social groups (e.g. sport’s team, family)

imaginary audience

an egocentric adolescent belief that everyone is watching and judging their appearance and behavior; high self-consciousness and social anxiety/embarrassment

personal fable

an egocentric adolescent belief where teenagers believe they are special, unique, and invulnerable to harm; they feel their experiences and emotions are entirely distinct from others', often leading to high-risk behaviors and a sense of being misunderstood

primary sex characteristics

male: testes, female: ovaries

secondary sex characteristics

male: deep voice, facial hair, increased muscle mass

female: breast development, widening of hips

spermarche

the first ejaculation of a male

menarche

the first menstrual period of a female

social clock

the cultural timetable and societal pressure to achieve major life milestones (e.g. getting married, graduating college, retirement)