VCE Psychology Exam Revision

Central nervous system (CNS)

Central nervous system (CNS)

• Consists of brain and spinal cord

• Occupies central position in body, crucial for processing sensory stimuli

• Integrates and coordinates sensory information, initiates motor messages

• Sends both conscious and unconscious commands to the body

Brain

• Highly intricate organ composed of around 86 billion neurons

• Processes sensory input, coordinates voluntary movements, emotions, and conscious thought

• Regulates involuntary functions like breathing, temperature, and hunger without conscious awareness

• Communication with the body occurs through the spinal cord and nerves

Spinal cord

• 45-centimeter extension of the brain stem, made of nerve fibers

• Directly connected to the peripheral nervous system via 31 pairs of spinal nerves

• Main functions: Transmit sensory information from body to brain, relay motor commands from brain to body

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

• Consists of all nerves outside of the CNS, including sensory and motor neurons.

• Transmits messages between CNS and muscles, organs, and glands

• Subdivisions: Somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system, each with distinct roles

Sensory neurons

Transmit sensory information to the CNS.

Motor neurons

Transmit motor commands from the CNS to muscles and glands.

Somatic nervous system

• Transmits sensory information to CNS (brain, spinal cord)

• Involves sensory receptors and neurons collecting data from the five senses

• Also carries motor commands from the CNS to the body for voluntary movements

• Motor neurons in the […] system control voluntary actions

Autonomic nervous system

• Controls the body’s internal environment in an autonomous or self-regulated manner.

• Directly connected to organs, glands, and visceral muscles (smooth, involuntary muscles)

• Controls functions of stomach, digestive tract, and other internal organs

• Plays significant role in stress, fear, and anger responses

• Subdivisions of ANS reveal distinct roles during stress, fear, and anger

Sympathetic nervous system

• Responsible for the "fight or flight" response.

• Dominant during perceived threats or stress

• Primary role: Heighten arousal, preparing body for quick response (fight-or-flight-or-freeze)

• Examples

  • Dilated pupils

  • Increased heart rate and breathing

  • Inhibited digestion

  • Inhibited salivation

Parasympathetic nervous system

• Responsible for the "rest and digest" response.

• Functions:

  • Maintaining a balanced internal state, otherwise known as homeostasis

  • Counterbalancing the energising function of the sympathetic nervous system by lowering arousal and restoring the body to a calm state after a threat has passed.

Enteric nervous system

Governs the function of the gastrointestinal tract.

Unconscious responses

• Don't require awareness and are typically simpler than conscious responses.

• Do not involve learning

• Can include involuntary functions such as those regulated by the autonomic NS

• Examples:

  • Blinking, a simple eyelid closure, is an innate, unlearned response.

  • Reflexes like sneezing, coughing, or withdrawing hand from a hot object.

  • Responses to temperature changes: shivering when cold, sweating when hot.

  • Emotional responses like blushing when embarrassed.

  • Digestion of food in the gut is also an unconscious process.

Spinal reflex

• Crucial for survival, enabling rapid responses to stimuli.

• They're involuntary, unconscious reactions involving the spinal cord, bypassing the brain.

• These reflexes happen without conscious awareness, ensuring swift reactions to stimuli.

Conscious responses

• Involves awareness and input from the CNS (brain), often involving decision-making.

• They tend to be complex and can involve a series of actions.

• Can involve learning

• Includes voluntary responses, such as movement performed by the somatic NS

• Examples include:

  • Putting on a jumper when feeling cold.

  • Scratching an itch.

  • Throwing a ball.

  • Recalling what you ate for breakfast.

  • Solving a math problem.

  • Writing an essay.

Neurons

• The basic building blocks of the nervous system

• Specialized to communicate information around the body

• There are three different types

  • Sensory (afferent)

  • Motor (efferent)

  • Interneuron

Motor neuron

Dendrite

Receives incoming neural messages

Soma

The body of the neuron, containing the nucleus with the genetic material for the neuron

Axon

The pathway down which the neural message travels

Myelin sheath

Fatty tissue that encases the axon to aid in speed of transmission

Axon terminals

Exit pathways for neural messages to make their way to the next neuron

Terminal buttons

Releases a chemical substance known as a neurotransmitter to a receiving neuron for communication purposes; also referred to as synaptic knobs

Neural transmission

Neurons communicate via a process that uses electrochemical energy.

• A neural impulse (electrical energy) runs from the dendrite down the axon and to the axon terminals.

• The terminal buttons (synaptic knobs) then release a chemical substance (chemical energy).

• This chemical substance, known as a neurotransmitter, crosses the synapse (space from one neuron to the next).

• The neurotransmitter is then picked up by the receiving neuron via the dendrites.

Neurotransmitters

• Chemicals that transmit information from one neuron to the next.

• Transported in the axon

• Released at the synapse

  • to cause chemical and electrical changes in the adjacent cells

• Play different roles throughout the body, many of which are unknown yet

• Contained in small sacs called synaptic vesicles, within the terminal button of the neuron's axon terminal

• Effects can be excitatory or inhibitory

Excitatory neurotransmitter

• Increase the likelihood that the post-synaptic neuron will fire an action potential or neural impulse

Inhibitory neurotransmitter

• Inhibitory neurotransmitters reduce the chances of a post-synaptic neuron firing.

• Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter.

• Proper neurotransmitter balance is crucial; imbalances can harm neuron function.

• Insufficient GABA levels can lead to excessive excitatory effects from glutamate, causing anxiety and other mental disorders.

Glutamate

• Is the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the CNS, making post-synaptic neurons more likely to fire

• Activates or stimulates neural activity in the brain

• Is involved in neural plasticity and the processes of learning and storing a memory.

GABA

• Is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS, making post-synaptic neurons less likely to fire

• Suppresses or slows down neural activity in the brain

• In low levels is associated with conditions such as anxiety and specific phobias

Neuromodulators

• A subclass of neurotransmitters

• Like neurotransmitters, these are chemical molecules.

• They don't just enable communication across one synapse but can affect neural transmission across whole brain regions.

• They alter the overall effectiveness of neural communication in entire regions of the brain.

• Does not result in excitation or inhibition of a specific neuron.

  • Instead, it can alter multiple neurons so that neurotransmission between them is altered.

    
    

• Neuromodulators can enhance synaptic transfer efficiency and fortify learning and memory pathways.

  • They achieve this by activating neurons and inducing enduring changes in synaptic activity.

  • Cellular changes may involve boosting dendritic receptors in post-synaptic neurons and increasing neurotransmitter production in pre-synaptic neurons.

Dopamine

• When you do any activity you enjoy ________ is released giving you feelings of pleasure and wellbeing

• Is a multifunctional neurotransmitter with both excitatory and inhibitory effects

• involved in many CNS functions in addition to pleasure, such as movement, attention, mood, cognition and motivation.

• Acts as a modulating neurotransmitter or neuromodulator by enhancing neural activity in brain regions linked to various functions, such as the reward pathway.

Reward pathway

• Consists of brain structures activated by rewarding stimuli, like seeing food when hungry or anticipating water when thirsty.

• Increased dopamine release in this pathway enhances the perception of a stimulus as rewarding.

• Dopamine signals within the reward pathway encourage repetition of actions that lead to rewards, whether it's seeing a desired stimulus or anticipating it.

Serotonin

• An inhibitory neurotransmitter that also acts as a neuromodulator.

• responsible for mood, perception, reward, anger, aggression, appetite, memory, sexuality and attention.

• Helps regulate brain activity associated with impulsive and aggressive behaviours.

• Higher […] levels in specific brain areas correlate with increased patience for rewards, reducing impulsivity.

Synaptic plasticity

• Learning and memory formation involve the creation of stable connections between neurons, known as […]

• […] results in strengthening or weakening of connections based on activity levels.

• Glutamate is released during the activation of neural pathways associated with experiences.

• Glutamate stimulates activity in pathways and promotes neural connectivity, thereby enhancing memory strength.

• Consists of two important processes involved in neural plasticity: long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD).

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

• A relatively permanent strengthening of synaptic connections resulting from repeated activation of a neural pathway.

Long-term Depression (LTD)

• Involves a relatively permanent weakening of synaptic connections.

• This is usually a result of repeatedly lower levels of activity in a neural pathway

• Helps our brain to adapt or change neural pathways and to get rid of or ‘prune’ neural connections that are no longer useful

Sprouting

• This process involves the growth of axon and/or dendrite fibres at the synapse.

• Growth of dendritic spines on the post-synaptic neuron, resulting in the dendrites appearing ‘bushier’

• Growth of axon sprouts called filigree appendages on the axon terminal of the presynaptic neuron

• Formation of additional synapses as synaptogenesis.

• Sprouting likely occurs as neurons in new pathway strengthen

Rerouting

• Learning efficiency involves rerouting neural connections

• Original technique forms strong neural pathway via Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

• New technique prompts rerouting via Long-Term Depression (LTD)

• Alternative pathway forms for new technique

• Practice reinforces new serving technique over time

Pruning

• Synaptic pruning fine-tunes neural networks, strengthening crucial connections

• Similar to a gardener pruning a fruit tree for healthier fruit

• LTD process involves pruning, eliminating excess neurons and connections

• Aim is to enhance efficiency of neuronal transmissions

Mental Health Spectrum

• Mental health exists on a continuum from high to low.

• Each individual occupies a unique point on this spectrum.

• A person's position on the spectrum can change over time.

  • Changes depend on life experiences and circumstances.

Factors that influence mental health

• Key factors include personal experiences and resilience.

Use of the Mental Health Spectrum

• Understanding where one stands on the spectrum can aid in addressing mental health needs.

• Continuous monitoring and support may be necessary for wellbeing.

Importance of high level mental wellbeing

• Essential for engaging in everyday tasks like work or school.

Characteristics of Mentally healthy people

• have a high level of functioning

• manage their feelings and emotions (high level of emotional wellbeing)

• can form positive relationships with others (high level of social wellbeing)

• cope with the normal stresses that arise every day; that is, they have the resilience to cope with and

• manage change and uncertainty

• think logically and problem solve

• have reasonable levels of confidence in their abilities and self-esteem.

Characteristics of High level mental wellbeing.

• a high level of functioning

• social and emotional wellbeing

• resilience to life stressors.

High Level of functioning

• The ability to carry out a wide range of daily activities:

  • attend to self-care

  • maintain interpersonal relationships

  • demonstrate resilience in the face of everyday challenges.

High levels of functioning examples.

• Activities of Daily Living:

  • Engaging in self-care routines.

  • Maintaining personal hygiene.

• Work or Occupational Settings:

  • Being productive and meeting targets.

  • Contributing positively to the workplace.

• School Settings:

  • Actively participating in class activities.

  • Getting along well with peers and teachers.

• Interpersonal Relationships:

  • Developing and maintaining friendships.

  • Building and sustaining healthy relationships with others.

Social Wellbeing

• Relates to the connections made with others and the ability to interact positively within a community.

Social Wellbeing Examples

• Forming relationships with family and friends

• Respecting and interacting appropriately to different ethnic and cultural backgrounds

• Working as a part of a team

• Contributing to society (e.g. volunteering)

Emotional Wellbeing

• Refers to the ability to feel a range of emotions and express them in a positive way.

High levels of emotional wellbeing examples

• Expressing a range of emotions relevant to the context

• Controlling different emotions and responding to them positively

• Acting positively and having a positive outlook

• Identifying emotions in others and responding appropriately

• Responding with appropriate emotions to setbacks.

Resilience

• Ability to respond or ‘bounce back’ to previous normal functioning when faced with adversity

• Even people with high levels of mental wellbeing can experience challenges causing grief, anger, and despair

• Capacity to adapt to or overcome stressful circumstances and continue with day-to-day life demonstrates resilience

Promote resilience

• Strong social support

• High levels of self-efficacy

• Problem-solving abilities

• Ability to make and carry out plans

Mental Health Problems

• Can occur in the middle of the mental wellbeing continuum

• Typically cause disruption to everyday functioning

• Usually result in mild and temporary impairment

• Often considered natural responses to negative events

Characteristics of Mental Health Problems

• Increased or decreased sleep and appetite

• Loss of energy and motivation

• Difficulty concentrating

• Difficulty focusing/completing work or study tasks

• Irritability

• Becoming withdrawn

Mental Disorders

• Approximately 20% of Australians will experience this in any given 12-month period

• Typically affect mood, thinking, and behavior

• Diagnosed using set criteria

Examples:

• Major depression

• Schizophrenia

Three D’s of mental Disorders

• Distress

  • Unpleasant experiences like sadness, anxiety, or feeling overwhelmed

• Dysfunction

  • Impact on the person’s ability to complete daily activities (e.g., work or school)

• Deviance

  • Thoughts and behaviours inconsistent with the person’s culture or society

Characteristics of Mental Disorders

• Have Reduced level of day-to-day functioning

• Have reduced ability to cope with and manage change and uncertainty.

• Have impaired ability to engage in social relationships.

• Experience significant changes in thoughts, feelings, behaviours or lack of interest (apathy).

• Show serious or prolonged changes in typical character.

• Have impaired ability to function independently, such as taking care of oneself at home.

SEWB Model Domains

• Connection to Body

• Connection to Mind and Emotions

• Connection to Family and Kinship

• Connection to Community

• Connection to Culture

• Connection to Country

• Connection to Spirit, Spirituality and Ancestors

SELF at the Centre

• Surrounded by a network of relationships between individuals, family, kin, and community

• Recognizes the importance of connection to land, culture, spirituality, and ancestry

SEWB influences on mental health

• Social Determinants

• Historical Determinants

• Political Determinants

Social Determinants

• Socio-economic status

• Impact of poverty

• Unemployment

• Housing

• Educational attainment

• Racial discrimination

• Exposure to violence, trauma, and stressful life events

• Access to community resources

Historical Determinants

• Impact of past government policies

• Extent of historical oppression and cultural displacement

Political Determinants

• Unresolved issues of land

• Control of resources

• Cultural security

• Rights of self-determination and sovereignty

External factors

• Originate outside a person

• Includes:

  • Relationships

  • Education level

  • Income

  • Social support

  • Homelessness

  • Experience of abuse

  • Cultural values

  • Employment

  • Discrimination

Internal factors

• Originate inside a person

• Includes:

  • Genetics

  • Sex

  • Neurotransmitter function

  • Hormones

  • Immune function

  • Nervous system activity

  • Negative thinking

  • Beliefs and attitudes

  • Emotions

  • Learning and memory

  • Personality traits

The biopsychosocial model

• The idea that an illness does not have a single cause, but results from the close interaction between biological, psychological and social factors.

Biological factors

• Refers to the functioning of a person’s body, which is often outside the control of the individual.

• Internal factors

Examples of Biological Factors

• genetics

• sex

• neurotransmitter function

• hormones

• immune function

• nervous system activity

• physical health.

Psychological Factors

• Refers to the influences that come from mental processes and may relate to prior learning experiences and memory.

• Internal factors

Examples of Psychological Factors

• styles of thinking

• beliefs and attitudes

• emotions

• learning and memory

• personality traits.

Social Factors

• Refers to the conditions in which people live and grow.

• External factors

Examples of Social Factors

• relationships

• early life experience

• education level

• income

• social support

• stability of accommodation

• experience of abuse

• cultural values

• employment

• discrimination.

Stress

• A state of mental, emotional, and physiological tension.

• Resulting from perceived challenges or threats to coping abilities.

Anxiety

• An emotion characterised by worry and uneasiness about potential negative outcomes.

• Often accompanied by physical symptoms (e.g., increased heart rate, sweating).

• The most common mental health condition in Australia.

• People with this may have low levels of GABA

Anxiety Disorder

• Describes chronic and/or severe anxiety.

• Interferes with daily life and activities.

Phobia

• A persistent, intense, and irrational fear of a specific object or event.

• Intense fear leads to avoidance of the feared stimulus.

• When faced with the stimulus, individuals may experience acute physiological arousal (fight-or-flight-or-freeze response).

Biological Risk Factors

• A range of factors that relate to the physiological functioning of the body. 

Genetic Vulnerability (Genetic Predisposition)

• Increased likelihood of developing a particular illness or physical characteristic due to DNA

• A range of mental disorders have this such as:

  • Schizophrenia

  • Autism spectrum disorders

• Does not guarantee the development of a condition, but it increases the risk.

Poor Response To Medication

• Occurs when a person takes medication to relieve symptoms, but the desired effect does not occur

• Variation in DNA can cause different responses to medication

  • Genes may affect the absorption, distribution, or metabolism of a particular medication, leading to a poor response

Poor Sleep

• Has various physiological impacts on the body

• Contributes to a lack of biological resources needed to cope with daily life demands

• Can lead to the development of mental disorders

Impacts of poor sleep

• Issues with memory consolidation

• Inability to restore neurotransmitter levels

• Reduced resilience

Mental Disorders Associated with Poor Sleep

• Anxiety

• Depression

• Bipolar disorder

• Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

Substance Abuse

• Refers to the harmful use of, or dependence on, psychoactive substances, including alcohol and illicit drugs.

• Considered a biological factor due to the interaction of substance ingredients with a person's biology

• Prevents a person from functioning in day-to-day life without the drug

Mental Disorders Associated with Substance Abuse

• Most types of mental disorders, including mood, anxiety, personality and schizophrenia-spectrum disorders, are associated with an increase in co-occurring substance use disorder.

• Co-occurrence rate is typically around 50% compared to the general population

Psychological Risk Factors

• A range of Factors related to the functioning of the brain and mind, including cognitive and affective processes such as thought patterns and memory

Rumination

• Refers to thinking about and focusing on negative thoughts and experiences.

• Can be dangerous for mental wellbeing due to repeated focus on negative emotions.

• Contributes to the development of mental disorders or prolongs existing ones.

• Leads to distress by continuously revisiting negative thoughts and experiences.

Impaired Memory and Reasoning

• Cognitive problems like impaired memory and reasoning may contribute to the development of a mental disorder.

• Often a result of cognitive bias, where a person's subjective reality affects logical thinking and accurately processing and recalling information.

Effects of Impaired Memory and Reasoning

• Difficulty with thinking logically and recalling information accurately

• Can lead to poor decision-making

• Potentially contributes to the development or exacerbation of mental disorders

Stress

• Linked to both psychological and biological processes when encountering a stimulus that challenges coping mechanisms.

• Appraisal of the stimulus as challenging or exceeding coping ability can lead to a stress response that contributes to the development of mental disorders

Vulnerability Factors of Stress

• Everyone has some vulnerability to stress-related mental disorders

• Chance of developing a disorder depends on:

  • Individual’s level of vulnerability

  • Level of stress

  • Ability to cope

• Level may be influenced by a single stressor or a combination of stressors

Self Efficacy

• Relates to a person’s confidence in their ability to complete life tasks and meet goals

High Self Efficacy

• Belief in the ability to influence events that affect their life and control how events are experienced.

• Helps interpret potential threats as manageable and reduces stress.

Poor Self Efficacy

• Negative thought patterns about coping with everyday demands.

• Can contribute to the development of a mental disorder

Social Risk Factors

• Factors related to a person’s social contacts and the influence of culture and the social environment on development of mental disorders.

Disorganised Insecure Attachment

• Occurs when an infant or young child does not receive consistent care or emotional support from a primary caregiver

Causes of Disorganised Insecure Attachment

• Changes or disruptions in the primary caregiver.

• Unpredictable emotional responses from the caregiver.

Effects of Disorganised Insecure Attachment

• Results in inconsistent behaviour towards the caregiver.

• Can lead to difficulties in forming trusting relationships later in life.

• May contribute to feelings of inability to rely on other people

Loss of Significant Relationship

• Losing a loved one, which can include death of a family member or close friend, separation, relocation away from someone close, or loss of a pet.

Impact of a Loss of Significant Relationship

• Adapting to life without the presence of the significant person.

• Studies show that distress from losing a spouse or child in a car accident can last 4–7 years

Symptoms of Prolonged Distress

• Depression

• Sleep disturbances

• Fatigue

• Panic attacks

• Loneliness

• Increased mortality rate