exam1

Midland Minnie

In 1953, archaeologists found fragments of a Paleo-Indian woman's skull and bones (dating possibly over 37,000 years old) on the Scharbauer Ranch near Midland, Texas. They labeled her as the "first mother" of Texas

Atl-atl

Designed by Paleo-Indians for hunting. It was made by finding a stick with a notch where the end of a spear could rest, thus giving more leverage to make more powerful throws over longer distances.

Agricultural revolution

Woodland Era (100BC-800AD); Transition from hunter-gatherer to farming society for Native American Cultures credited to women who had domesticated crops. Created a consistent and dependable source of food for the Native Americans. Instead of roaming to hunt and gather their food, tribes became sedentary in order to guard their crops. Additionally, villages were created which allowed an increase in the social aspect of tribal life. Men learned specialization of labor while women became valued "owners" of the crops.

American Triad/Three Sisters

Refers to beans, squash, and corn domesticated by women of the Woodland Era and Agricultural Revolution from about 100BC- AD800

Caddo location, beliefs and lifestyle

Located in NE. They had a Caddi who ruled the town's clan and an Xinesi, who was high chief and priest. Built stair-stepped, rectangular, flat-top mounds as their temples. Believed god spoke to them thru their chief. They believed in a single creator but also worshiped Mother Earth, corn, rain, and fire. Hunters, gatherers, and farmers.

Karankawa location, beliefs and lifestyle

Located in South Texas. Kept domesticated dogs, lived in marshy environment; Lived along coastal area between Corpus Christi and Galveston- used dugout canoes and lived in portable huts, they were tall and had tattooed or painted bodies and piercings for decoration. Survived as hunters and gatherers and made longbow with arrows for fighting, hunting, and fishing. Minor chiefs kept order within the groups

Coahuiltecan location, beliefs and lifestyle

Located in South Texas. Lived south of Galveston Bay. Travelled in small bands but over a much wider area of South Texas; Communal, sharing food and possessions; Food staples were agaves, prickly pears, and mesquite beans; Men hunted with bows and arrows, wooden lances, and knives; "Headman" provided leadership for each band and was typically a great hunter or warrior - he had limited power so had to keep the loyalty of his men (divvied out food to his men before taking his share); Society had 3 characteristics - all in the band were related, functioned as equals (no classes), and people stayed in group as long as they didn't hurt relatives or neighbors; Believed in supernatural spirits, shamans functioned as healers but abandoned the sick that couldn't be cured

Jumano location, beliefs and lifestyle

Lived in West Texas in Rio Grande Valley; Lived settled life on farms; Related to the Pueblo; lived along river in flat-roofed adobe or dried mud houses clustered in large pueblos headed by chiefs who would settle problems; A few Jumano developed nomadic lifestyle hunting buffalo; strong people with painted or tattooed stripes on faces; Women had long hair, men had mid-length hair; loved music (bonfires); Part of Caddo trade network that traded corn, beans, buffalo, and pottery for blankets and turquoise

Plains Indian use of the buffalo

West Texas (Comanche, Kiowa, Apache, …); supplied their major needs. Ate the meat and used hides for clothing and blankets. Built teepees using hides to cover long pole frames; Tools and weapons made from bones; Ropes and lashings made from sinew (muscle); Stomach pouches became storage bags; Drank melted animal fat

Álvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca

Last of 4 men from the 1528 Pánfilo Narváez expedition who was shipwrecked and then captured by a Native American tribe located near Matagorda Bay. He is important because he and the other 3 men escaped from the tribe that held them captive (Estevan). After their escape, he and the other 3 men walked over 2,000 miles south and west through areas of southern Texas and northern Mexico to the Pacific - meeting and talking with the indigenous people. During their trek, they learned of the legendary Seven Cities of Cíbola which became the basis for the Spanish expedition by Marcos de Niza and then Coronado to find the Seven Cities.

Marcos de Niza

The leader of a Spanish expedition to find the legendary cities of gold; Spanish Franciscan friar chosen to explore the country north of Sonora, whose wealth was depicted in the accounts of Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca; Estevan sent out to New Mexico but killed by Zuni Indians; Niza thought that the pueblo roofs were made of gold and thought they'd found Cibola which led to Coronado's expedition

Esteván

The slave (first black in Texas?) who accompanied Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca on the journey across the southwest. He learned to speak with and translate the language of the natives and was said to learn of the location of Cibola (legendary 7 cities of gold). He accompanied Marcos de Niza on the official Spanish expedition to find Cibola

Francisco de Coronado

• Search for Seven Cities of Cibola in 1541

• Journey from Albuquerque then northeast into Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas

• Some of his men split off and discovered the Grand Canyon

• First Europeans to traverse the Llano Estacado and Palo Duro Canyon of Texas

• Found poor Wichita Indian village; * Expedition was a failure (no gold)

Sieur de La Salle

First to descend Mississippi to the Gulf of Mexico, claiming entire Mississippi Valley for France ("Louisiana"); Fort Saint Louis forced reexamination by Spanish of the need to occupy the land of Texas to prevent France from encroaching

Father Massenet and Mission San Francisco de los Tejas - 1690

Mission San Francisco de los Tejas was the most important mission established by Father Damián Massanet amongst the Caddos in 1690. The mission is important because it was built by the Spanish in response to French efforts to establish a foothold in the region. The Spanish attempted to convert the Caddos to Christianity and were disrespectful of the Caddoan beliefs and culture. Because of this, the Caddos rebelled and became violent which led to the failure of the Mission.

Saint-Denís

(PG 36) Canadian trader sent by Cadillac from Biloxi to Eastern Texas to trade with Caddo tribes; Travelled Rio Grande and set up trading post at Eagle Pass; Captured by Spanish, taken to Mexico City, and then accompanied Spanish into East Texas and founded 4 missions and presidio; became commandant at New France's Natchitoches

Establishment of San Antonio and La Bahía

San Antonio was most important mission (San Antonio de Valero) created by Saint-Denis; La Bahia (also called Goliad) was originally the site of La Salle's old Fort Saint Louis and was built by Ramon at direction of Aguayo (Governor of the area)

Peninsulares, Creoles, and Mestizos

Peninsulares were Spanish-born Spaniards (aristocracy and land holders) residing in the New World or Spanish East Indies.

Creoles were of pure Spanish Blood but were born in the Americas rather than in Spain and were considered second class

Mestizos were people with mixed Indian and Spanish blood at the bottom of the social and economic structure with Indians and blacks.

Ranching

Established because farming was too labor intensive; most important aspect of economy in New Spain's Texas frontier; Livestock "seeded" the area; Most successful ranches in San Antonio and La Bahia; First ranches established by missionaries with land grants from the King - Native Americans exploited to work the ranches; and then by settlers (private ranchers)

Most successful attempts came from missions in the San Antonio River Valley. Least successful being East Texas missions extended from Los Adaes to Nacogdoches. After making peace with Apaches in 1750, private ranchers began moving in and establishing ranchos (small ranches), breaking the missionaries' enterprise.

Father Miguel Hidalgo

Mexican War of Independence; Issued the Grito de Dolores revolutionary document which began Mexican Independence struggle; tried to unite creoles and mestizos against the peninsulares

Augustín de Iturbide

Mexican War of Independence; Creole royalist ordered into action against Guerrero; Was chosen to defend the old social order (peninsulares) but he switched sides and worked with Guerrero for independence; Issued Plan of Iguala

Gutierrez-Magee Expedition

Magee was a member of the U.S. army; Brought in as a filibuster to assist Jose Bernardo Gutierrez de Lara with defeating the Royalists in 1811 in exchange (w/ James Madison admin.) for wresting Mexico from Spain ; The army of 130 volunteers captured La Bahia and Magee died during the siege.

James Long

Led another filibustering adventure related to western boundary of Louisiana; Long was successful in capturing Nacogdoches, with his followers proclaiming Long the first President of the Republic of Texas, which lasted only one month (not affiliated with the Republic of Texas which resulted from Texas Revolution). However a Spanish expedition routed Long and his followers. His wife, Jane, became the first Anglo to give birth in Texas.

Adams-Onis Treaty Line

1819 A firm delineation of the border between the Louisiana Purchase and the remaining Spanish claims in North America was settled, beginning with the Sabine River between Texas and Louisiana. Texas was still under Spanish control.

Federalists

Federalists were liberals who preferred states' rights and autonomous power for Mexican states instead of a centralized national government. Finally, Federalists supported the immigration of Anglo-Americans in Texas while Centralists opposed such policy as it might disrupt the status quo.

Centralists

Centralists (aka Conservatives) were composed of the wealthy and powerful such as the landed aristocracy, military leaders, and church officials. As such, the Centralists had a vested interest in maintaining tradition and the status quo in order to preserve their power. This included keeping the current economic and social system of the Antebellum South as well as having a strong, centralized national government so that their power could be preserved.

Moses Austin

Stephen Austin

Inherited his father's land grant and the title of empresario after his father's death in 1821. is important because by the end of 1821 the first of his colonists had arrived in San Felipe de Austin. Due to changes in the Mexican government, he was forced to negotiate further with the Mexican government so that they would continue to recognize his agreement. He eventually (by 1825) was able to bring all 300 families to Texas.

Guadalupe Victoria

Guadalupe Victoria was the first president of the Republic of Mexico after adoption of the Constitution of 1924. He is important because he supported a federal form of government. He became the president only after overthrowing Iturbide who had supported a monarchy. One of his policies that had a particular impact on the colonization of Texas was the Coahuila y Texas State Colonization Law which allowed the immigration of white American colonists to the region (typically through empresarios).

Texas Colonization Law

Established by Guadalupe Victoria. Allowed immigration of white Americans to Coahuila y Tejas (PG 61). One condition to this was that immigrants had to acculturate to Mexico and become citizens.

Green De Witt

Green De Witt was one of the most powerful empresarios other than Stephen F. Austin.

Haden Edwards

Haden Edwards was an empresario who in 1825 agreed to bring 800 families to an areas in eastern Texas in the vicinity of Nacogdoches. He is important because he quickly came in conflict with some of the previous colonists who had settled on or near Edwards' land grant which resulted in Edwards' land grant being annulled. Edwards then issued a proclamation that his land was the Republic of Fredonia and that he was declaring independence from Mexico. Edwards and his revolutionaries only fled after forces led by Lt. Col. Mateo Ahumada advanced on "Fredonia".

Republic of Fredonia/ Fredonian Rebellion

Arose out of disagreements between Haden and Benjamin Edwards and Mexican authorities; first attempt by Anglo settlers in Texas to secede from Mexico. The settlers, led by Empresario Haden Edwards, declared independence from Mexican Texas and created the Republic of Fredonia near Nacogdoches. Caused Stephen Austin to join the Mexican government against Edwards.

Law of April 6, 1830

The effort by Ortiz from Mexico to prevent further immigration from the United States into Texas; Recommendations by Mier y Teran were to increase coastal trade between TX and MX and suggest that European and Mexican colonists move into TX to counter the American influence. Assistance was offered to Mexicans and Europeans who were willing to move north. Declared void all empresario contracts that were not yet fulfilled. Only exception were the contracts given to Stephen Austin and Green De Witt; Banned slaves into Texas

John D. Bradburn

Colonel who was an Anglo mercenary serving the Mexican army and allying with Centralists in Mexico City; Arrested Travis and charged him with sedition; also refused to release 2 runaway slaves when Travis used a ruse to try to get their release and return them to their owners. Caused "War Party" to escalate and resulted in "Turtle Bayou Resolutions" - Anahuac

Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna

Posed as a liberal Federalist who was trying to oust the Centralist government in Mexico City. Became 5-time president of Mexico

Valentin Gomez Farias

Vice President of Mexico who assisted Santa Anna and served as acting chief executive when the president retired to his Vera Cruz hacienda

Major Ethnic groups in Mexican Texas

Americans (white and black)

Mexicans

Europeans (Irish, English, Czechs, Germans, Poles)

Native Americans

Hispanics

Causes of the Revolution

1: Santa Anna's assumption of power resulted in changed laws (Seven Laws) that abolished the Constitution of 1824 and brought a strong centralized govt. Santa Anna ruled more as a dictator

2: South's desire for more slaveholding states to keep control of US

3: Relationship between Pres. Andrew Jackson and Sam Houston

4: Economic causation - Texas land speculation

5: Santa Anna threatened the individualism that had been in place

6: Texan contempt for Mexican political and social systems - ethnocentrism

Character of the rebel army

All had rifles; were rebellious and questioning, lack of unified leadership, and chaotic disorganization; Citizen-soldiers - they would return home between lulls in the battle; Elected own officers so that the men wouldn't take orders from anyone else; Did not trust politicians; Zeal in warfare and fierce show of Anit-Mexican sentiments (Texas nationalism)

Battle of Gonzalez

Start of the military phase of the Texas Revolution in Oct. 1835; Colonists versus Mexican government over the protection of a cannon. Colonel Domingo de Ugartechea, the commander of all Mexican troops in Texas. Brief encounter

Martín Perfecto de Cos

Brought reinforcements for garrisons at Refugio, Goliad, and San Antonio; Reinforced Santa Anna at San Jacinto, Santa Anna's BIL; General Cos fortified San Antonio's main plaza and Alamo Mission

Texan Siege of San Antonio

34-day siege; Rusk + Austin had ~600 men; Cos had more; Troops disobeyed Austin so Burleson was elected leader

o Attention shifted back to Goliad during the siege

• Ben Milam came to Texas in the early 1800's and played a major role in the Siege of San Antonio in 1835. He was able to get ~ 300 volunteer troops plus 2 officers to accompany him to San Antonio to break the siege. Were able to defend the supply depot and camp while Burleson and his troops were able to prevent Cos from uniting his troops. Milam and his men were able to capture several homes in town however Milam was killed in the process.

James C. Neill

James C. Neill was one of the key heroes in the Battle of San Antonio and was promoted to lieutenant colonel afterwards (December of 1835). Neill is important because he was the commander of the Alamo prior to Santa Anna's troops arrival in San Antonio in 1836. Neill worked on the placement of artillery and other fortifications in the Alamo and tried to obtain more troops to help in its defense. Neill left the Alamo due to family illness and was not there at the time of Santa Anna's attack

William Barrett Travis

William Barret Travis was sent in as James C. Neill's replacement at the Alamo in 1836 while Neill was on furlough. Travis is important because he was initially not trusted by the volunteer forces at the Alamo. An election was held as to who should take command. Both Travis and Jim Bowie were elected co-commanders and held those positions at the time of Santa Anna's attack.

Jim Bowie

Co-commander with Travis of the Alamo. Bowie appealed more to the volunteer forces.

Santa Anna's Siege of the Alamo

13 days

Convention of 1836

Meeting of elected delegates in Washington-on-the-Brazos, Texas in March 1836; adopted the Texas Declaration of Independence, written by George Childress. Elected an interim government, led by President David G. Burnet and developed a Texas Constitution based primarily on the Constitution of the United States.

James Fannin and the Battle of Coleto Creek/ Goliad Massacre

James Fannin was the colonel in command of the garrison at Goliad. He was ordered by Sam Houston to join Houston's forces in Victoria however Fannin inexplicably delayed his departure from Goliad by 5 days. He then made a fateful decision to rest after travelling just six miles from Goliad which gave the Mexican General, Urrea, sufficient time to intercept Fannin and his men. Due to issues with translation, Fannin surrendered to Urrea thinking that he and his men would eventually be released. Instead, the surrender was under the "no quarter" policy of Santa Anna and Fannin and his men were taken as prisoners - most (except for those saved by Francita Alavéz - a companion of one of the officers in General Urrea's forces at Goliad) were executed in what became known as the Goliad Massacre. Alavez was known as the "Angel of Goliad".

Runaway Scrape

Took place mainly between September 1835 and April 1836; the evacuations by Texas residents fleeing the Mexican Army during the Texas Revolution, from the Battle of the Alamo through the Battle of San Jacinto; The towns of Gonzales and San Felipe de Austin were burned to keep them out of the hands of the Mexican army

Sam Houston's overall military campaign versus Santa Anna before the Battle of San Jacinto

Sam Houston's campaign versus Santa Anna before the Battle of San Jacinto was strategically cautious - not overly cautious. Houston knew that his forces (approximately 900 men) were vastly outnumbered by Santa Anna's 6,000 men and that stopping to fight would lead to almost certain defeat and probably the slaughter of his troops. Houston further made the decision to burn the towns along the way (Gonzalez and San Felipe de Austin) so that Santa Anna could not replenish his supplies. After Houston crossed the Brazos River during his retreat, he sent several contingents back towards Santa Anna in order to act as a rear guard and delay their advance. Finally, Houston continued his retreat toward eastern Texas and didn't stop to fight until he learned that Santa Anna had split his forces and was now pursuing with only 700 men - a force that Houston felt his men could defeat.

Sam Houston

General who battled Santa Anna; Also the first president elected to the new independent Texas

Battle of San Jacinto

Decisive battle in Texas Revolution where Texan independence was declared

Treaties of Velasco

Santa Anna signed after Battle of San Jacinto with 2 components. Public component was SA agreed that fighting would cease, Mexicans would withdraw, and Mexico would not wage war again against TX. Secret component was that Texans would release SA only if he returned to Mexico to lobby for TX independence and work for treaty of commerce

The Republic's major problems

• Foreign diplomacy - Texas stood alone - not under the control of Mexico and not technically part of the United States even though Texans voted in favor of annexation to the United States. The United States would not annex Texas for fear that Mexico would retaliate militarily, and so Texas remained a land without a country.

• Financial stability - Texas had depleted its financial resources during the Revolution and was unable to finance its nascent government or compensate the families whose property had been burned to the ground during the Runaway Scrape. Texas's only resource was its land; however, land was cheap and it would take time to make the land profitable.

• The status of Santa Anna

The Battle of the Neches

Fought on July 15 and 16, 1839. The principal engagement of the Cherokee War, that began when Pres. Mirabeau Lamar announced that the time had come for an "exterminating war" on Texas Indians. Under Lamar, the Republic refused to recognize earlier treaties with the Cherokees who lived in East Texas and, after accusing the Indians of planning to join Mexico in an insurrection, sent troops commanded by Gen. Thomas J. Rusk to occupy Indian lands. The Cherokee leader, Chief Bowl (Duwali) led an evacuation of their main town, but as the Indians moved north they were attacked. The first day's battle proved indecisive, but on July 16, Texas troops led by Rusk and Burleson defeated the Cherokee and their allies, the Kickapoo, Delaware, and Shawnee, in a fight on the headwaters of the Neches River. Chief Bowl entered the battle on horseback, but when his mount was wounded and he was shot through the thigh, he dismounted. After being wounded again, he sat on the battlefield where a soldier shot him in the head. Approximately 100 Indians died in the fight; Texan losses were reported as five dead and twenty-eight wounded. Most of the Cherokees and their allies who survived the battle fled to Indian Territory. Among Indian tribes, only the Alabama and Coushatta remained in significant numbers in East Texas.

Houston's 1st administration

o His appointed cabinet included both allies and opponents; he led for only 2 years due to term limits

o Diplomacy - Jackson was first to grant Texas diplomatic recognition; Did so in his final days of the presidency b/c he was concerned over anger from the Northerners over a possible addition of another slave state; European countries followed by acknowledging the sovereignty of Texas; Mexico did NOT;

o Fiscal policy - Financial security by imposing taxes on imported goods, livestock, and property; Difficult to secure loans; Printed promissory notes (paper money) which became virtually worthless; reduced the size of the army; diplomacy with Native Americans instead of fighting; Still had $2 million in debt at the end of his administration

o Defense and Indian policy - Relied heavily on militia after cutting the size of the army (inefficient); Created the Texas Rangers in 1837; Indian Policy was to pursue a policy of peace (cheaper and more humane)

o Land policy - Encouraged immigration by giving away land to attract settlers which increased physical and economic strength of Texas; were given the land but had to "improve the land" within 3 years in order to gain title; Inspired the GTT movement (Gone to Texas)

Sam Houston V. Mirabeau Lamar Annexation

Sam Houston favored annexation of Texas by the United States as he felt that annexation would help to alleviate the major problems that Texas faced after becoming a Republic. For example, he felt that statehood would confer a certain level of financial stability as well as assist in foreign diplomacy. Additionally, Houston's desire was in line with the wishes of the Texas populace who had voted for annexation. Mirabeau Lamar, on the other hand, was staunchly against annexation because he desired a strong, independent Texas that would be its own powerful nation. For this reason, Lamar withdrew the application for annexation that had been submitted by Houston.

Sam Houston V. Mirabeau Lamar attitude toward Native Americans

Sam Houston was sympathetic toward the Native Americans and sought to deal with them through diplomacy and peace treaties. He also perceived that battling the Native Americans would further drain the nonexistent financial resources of the fledgling Republic. Conversely, Mirabeau Lamar was antagonistic toward the Native Americans and saw them merely as obstacles that needed removal. He consequently spent much money shoring up the numbers in the Texas army and battling the Indians in order to force them to move from the Republic with the end result being that Texas was in greater debt after his presidency.

Lamar's administration

o Movement of the capital to Austin away from Houston's sphere of influence

o Public education - promoted public education; 4 leagues of land given to each county to sell for purposes of obtaining funding for public education; He also gave 50 leagues of land in order to establish 2 state universities (Baylor and UT Austin)

o Foreign policy - Wanted independence for TX rather than annexation; sought to purchase independence from Mexico however Mexico refused to meet with emissaries from Texas; wanted to expand westward through the Santa Fe Expedition

o The Santa Fe Expedition

o Indian policy - Lamar viewed Indians as obstacles to be removed; he increased the size of the army and rejected the previous policy of using peace treaties; He spent much $$ on his efforts

o Chief Duwali - The Battle of the Neches

o Council House Fight - Commanches killed by Texans in Council House

Houston's 2nd administration

o Vasquez and Woll Raids - 2 raids by Mexico on San Antonio with limited results except for a psychological impact on Texans regarding their vulnerability

o Mier Expedition (failed expedition to rescue 60 prisoners taken in San Antonio by Mexico during the Woll Raid)

o Black Bean Episode - Santa Anna killed 1 of every 7 men by randomly choosing beans from Mier Expedition

Anson Jones and the annexation of Texas

Jones was the third elected president of the Republic of Texas - succeeding Sam Houston's second term and serving from 1844 to 1846. He is important because he presided during the period when Texas achieved statehood. He held a constitutional convention in 1845 in order draw up a constitution for the new state which then was approved by the citizens. Jones became the final president of Texas before annexation by the U.S.

Pres. Tyler - skip territorial stage, TX responsible for public debt, Oct. 1845 New State Constitution, Dec. 1845 - Became a state

Mexican-American War

Mexicans said boundary between countries should be Nueces River and Texans said it should be Rio Grande; Mexico refused to negotiate with Polk; 5/13/1846 - Polk declared war; Colonel John Coffee Hays led regiment of TX Mounted Rifles to capture Monterrey Mexico; Major Ben McCulloch commanded spy company for victory at Buena Vista; Texans viewed as uneducated barbarians; Gen. Winfield Scott landed in Vera Cruz and led expedition to capture Mexico City, succeeded in getting Santa Anna to sign the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo (1848) which settled dispute over TX boundary and gave US possession of NM, AZ, NV, UT, CA and parts of CO and WY. Wilmot from PA proposed amendment to outlaw slavery in all territories acquired from Mexico but the amendment failed in the Senate.

New Mexico Boundary Dispute/Compromise of 1850

** Millard Fillmore was U.S. president **

The Compromise of 1850 was a package of 5 separate bills passed by the US Congress in September 1850; Defused a 4-year political confrontation between slave and free states regarding the status of territories acquired during the Mexican-American War.