chapter 8 psych

Cognition

Encompasses all mental activities associated with knowledge acquisition, transformation, storage, and utilization. It includes processes like attention, memory, perception, and reasoning.

Thinking

A narrower subset of cognition that involves manipulating information to achieve specific goals, solve problems, or form beliefs. It often requires higher-level cognitive functions like reasoning and decision-making.

Superordinate Concepts

The broadest category, encompassing all related objects (e.g., 'furniture' includes all types of furniture).

Midlevel (Basic) Concepts

More specific categories that individuals typically use in everyday language (e.g., 'couch').

Subordinate Concepts

The most specific instances within a category (e.g., 'loveseat,' 'recliner,' or specific brands like 'La-Z-Boy').

Formal Concepts

Defined by rigid and logical rules or specific criteria. For example, in mathematics, a formal concept might be defined as a number that cannot be divided evenly by 2 (e.g., odd numbers).

Natural Concepts

Formed through everyday experiences and cultural influences, these concepts are characterized by general features and do not have strict definitions. For instance, the concept of a 'superhero' is fluid and shaped by individual experiences with media, folklore, and societal values.

Prototypes

Prototypes are the most representative or ideal examples of a concept that individuals use to identify members of that concept. They serve as mental benchmarks against which new instances are compared.

Mental Rotation

The ability to manipulate mental representations of objects is known as mental rotation. This cognitive skill is evident in everyday tasks, such as navigating furniture placement or visualizing spatial arrangements.

Neuronal Activity

The electrical and chemical activities of neurons underpin all cognitive processes. Cognitive activities result from complex interactions within neural networks in the brain.

Broca's Area

Located in the left frontal lobe, this area is responsible for language production. Damage here can result in difficulties forming coherent speech.

Wernicke's Area

Situated in the left temporal lobe, it is critical for language comprehension. Damage to this area can hinder understanding of language, leading to nonsensical speech despite fluent verbal output.

Neural Plasticity

The brain's ability to reorganize and adapt after injury is known as neural plasticity. Following a stroke, recovery often involves increased neuronal excitability, reorganization of neural pathways, and enhanced synaptic communication.

Initial State

The starting point of a problem, which can involve understanding the specific issues at hand.

Goal State

The desired outcome that one aims to achieve through problem-solving.

Obstacles

The challenges or barriers that prevent reaching the goal state.

Understanding the Problem

This involves clearly identifying the problem, analyzing its components, and labeling it correctly.

Choosing Strategies

After understanding the problem, the next step is to select an approach or strategy to solve it effectively.

Trial and Error

Involves attempting various solutions until one is successful.

Algorithms

Defined as step-by-step formulas or procedures that guarantee a solution if applied correctly.

Heuristics

Shortcuts or rules of thumb used to simplify complex problems.

Insight

A sudden realization or understanding that occurs after a period of contemplation or subconscious processing.

Mental Sets

The tendency to approach problems using strategies that have worked in the past, which can limit creative solutions.

Emotional Barriers

Factors such as anxiety, stress, or frustration that can cloud judgment and hinder clear thinking.

Functional Fixedness

A cognitive bias that limits a person to use an object only in the way it is traditionally used.

Decision Making

A cognitive process that involves choosing between available options or strategies after identifying a problem.

Availability Heuristic

A mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method, or decision.

Hindsight Bias

The inclination to believe, after an event has occurred, that one would have predicted or expected the outcome.

The Framing Effect

The way information is presented can significantly impact decision-making.

Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE)

CTE is a neurodegenerative disease associated with repeated head trauma, often found in athletes.

Symptoms of CTE

Anxiety, Depression, Explosive anger, Suicidal tendencies, Cognitive impairments, Advanced cases may lead to severe memory loss and dementia.

Tau Protein

Abnormal accumulation of tau is a hallmark of CTE, also implicated in Alzheimer's disease.

Language

Language is a system of symbols (words, gestures, sounds) used for thinking and communication.

Word Families

The average English-speaking college student knows 10,000 to 11,000 word families.

Phonemes

Phonemes are the basic units of sound that form words.

Cognitive Advantages of Bilingualism

Bilingualism enhances executive control—skills that manage cognitive processes and attention.

Semantics

Semantics is the study of meaning in language.

Pragmatics

Pragmatics refers to the social rules governing language use in interactions.

Learning Theory Perspective

Suggests that children learn language through reinforcement and modeling.

Chomsky's Theory

Proposes that humans are born with an innate ability for language, allowing for universal language development independent of direct teaching.

Displacement

The ability to discuss absent events or hypothetical situations, allowing communication about the future, past, and imaginary concepts.

Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis

Proposed by Benjamin Lee Whorf, suggesting that language influences thought and perception.

Morphemes

Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning in a language.

Grammar

The set of rules governing word and sentence structure, including syntax and semantics.

Intelligence

Intelligence is generally understood as the innate ability to solve problems, adapt to the environment, and learn from experiences.

Cultural Perspectives on Intelligence

Intelligence may vary based on cultural context, with different societies valuing different skills.

The G-Factor

Proposed by Charles Spearman, the g-factor suggests that a general intelligence underlies various cognitive abilities.

Gardner's Multiple Intelligences

Howard Gardner proposes that intelligence consists of multiple types of intelligences, each associated with specific strengths.

Measuring Intelligence

Intelligence testing began in the early 20th century with Alfred Binet's work in France to assess schoolchildren's performance.

Intelligence Testing

Assessment of cognitive abilities and performance.

Alfred Binet

Pioneer of intelligence testing in the early 1900s.

Mental Age

Age at which a child performs intellectually.

Chronological Age

Actual age of an individual in years.

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

Score derived from standardized intelligence tests.

Stanford-Binet Test

Revised intelligence test measuring verbal and nonverbal skills.

Wechsler Tests

Tests assessing various intelligence aspects for different ages.

Validity

Test's ability to measure intended construct accurately.

Reliability

Consistency of test results over repeated administrations.

Split-Half Reliability

Dividing a test to assess consistency of results.

Standardization

Process ensuring consistent test administration and scoring.

Cultural Bias

Test bias favoring majority cultural contexts.

Chitling Test

Alternative assessment highlighting cultural intelligence knowledge.

Normal Curve

Bell-shaped distribution of intelligence test scores.

Mean Score

Average score, typically set at 100.

Environmental Factors

External conditions affecting intelligence test outcomes.

Socioeconomic Status (SES)

Economic and social position influencing educational access.

Giftedness

Defined by an IQ of 130 or above.

Genius

An IQ above 140, achieved by 1% of population.

Terman Study

Longitudinal study of gifted children's outcomes.

Emotional Intelligence (EI)

Ability to perceive and manage emotions effectively.

Twin Studies

Research comparing IQ similarities in twins.

Intellectual Disability

Characterized by low IQ and adaptive functioning difficulties.

Creativity

Generating novel and valuable solutions to problems.

Divergent Thinking

Generating multiple solutions to a problem.

Convergent Thinking

Logical reasoning to narrow down solutions.

Howard Gardner

Proposed multiple intelligences theory, emphasizing diversity.

Gabriel's Abilities

Excelling in music while struggling in self-care.