ap psych memory/language

learning

the changing of behavior in response to experience

behaviorists

explain human thought and behavior as a result of past conditioning

behaviorism

view that psychology in which all behaviors are learned through interactions with the environment through a process called conditioning

Ivan Pavlov

created the concept of classical conditioning by which he conducted experiments on dogs, he used classical conditioning principals to spur the dogs to salivate whenever a bell was rung

classical conditioning

process of repeatedly pairing an original (unconditioned) stimulus, which naturally produces a reflexive (unconditioned) response with a new (neutral) stimulus, such that the new stimulus produces the same response

neutral stimulus (NS)

stimulus that at first elicits no response

unconditioned stimulus (US)

stimulus that automatically triggers a response

unconditioned response (UR)

the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned

conditioned stimulus (CS)

an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR)

conditioned response (CR)

a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus

acquisition

when a behavior such as a (CR) has been learned

higher order conditioning

when a neutral stimulus becomes linked to a conditioned stimulus

Edward Thorndike’s law of effect

idea that response that lead to positive effects are repeated, while responses that lead to negative effects are not repeated

B.F. Skinner

a behaviorist that developed the theory of operant conditioning

Skinner’s box

a device used to objectively record an animals behavior in a compressed time frame

operant conditioning

a method of learning that alters the frequency of a behavior by manipulating its consequences through reinforcement or punishment

shaping

differential reinforcement of successive approximations of a target behavior until the person exhibits the target behavior

chaining

putting together multiple behaviors that form one “larger” behavior

extinction

facing and disappearance of behavior previously learned by association with another event

spontaneous recovery

the comeback of a conditioned response after extinction when the unconditioned stimulus is presented again

stimulus generalization

tendency to respond to another stimulus that is similar but not identical to the original conditioned stimulus

stimulus discrimination

ability to distinguish between similar but non-identical stimuli

Watson’s “little albert” experiment

demonstrated that classical conditioning works in humans

taste aversion

learned association between the taste of a particular food and illness such that the food is considered to be the cause of illness

schedules of reinforcement

patterns that define how often reinforcement will occur for a desired behavior

continuous reinforcement

when a reinforcer (reward) is given every time a desired behavior is exhibited

partial (intermittent) reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the times

fixed

number of response between reinforcement (or amount of time between) which is set and unchanging

variable

number of response (amount of time) between reinforcement varies or changes

ratio

schedule is based on the number of responses between reinforcement

interval

schedule is based on time between reinforcement

fixed ratio

a schedule of reinforcement where a response is reinforced only after a specified number of responses

variable ratio

a schedule of reinforcement in which a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses

fixed interval

when reinforcement is given to a desired response after specific (predictable) amount of time has passed

variable interval

schedule of reinforcement where a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed

observational learning

a form of learning that occurs by watching the behavior of others

mirror neurons

a type of brain cell that responds equally when we perform an action and we witness someone else perform the same action

Albert Bandura and the bobo doll

children are able to learn social behavior such as aggression through the process of observational learning, watching the behavior of another person

cognition in conditioning

process in which a stimulus is repeatedly paired with an imagined or anticipated response or behavior

latent learning

process in which a stimulus is repeatedly paired with an imagined or anticipated response or behavior

insight learning

occurs when one suddenly realized how to solve a problem through reasoning, forming conclusions, inferences, or judgments

reinforcing stimulus (reinforcement)

anything that strengthens or increases a behavior

positive reinforcement

any pleasant stimulus rewarded after a desired behavior

negative reinforcement

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli (removing something unpleasant or uncomfortable)

primary reinforcement

things that motivate behavior because they satisfy an individuals basic survival needs

secondary reinforcement (conditioned reinforcement)

a stimulus that reinforces a behavior after it has been associated with a primary reinforcer

token reinforcer

a form of behavior modification designed to increase desirable behavior and decrease undesirable behavior with the use of tokens

punishing stimulus (punishment)

a consequence which reduces or aims to reduce the likelihood of a targeted behavior from happening again

positive punishment

adding an adverse stimulus after an unwanted behavior to discourage a person from repeating this behavior

negative punishment

increases the target behavior by removing something adverse

overjustification effect

being rewarded for doing something actually diminishes intrinsic motivation to perform that action

the premack principle

more probable behaviors will reinforce less probable behaviors

Martin Seligman

leading authority in the fields of positive psychology, resilience, learned helplessness, depression, optimism, and pessimism

learned helplessness

a state that occurs after a person has experienced a stressful situation repeatedly

memory

the learning and retaining of information and past experiences

information processing model

explanation of memory that compares the operation of human memory to a computer to a computer involving encoding, transfer to storage, and retrieval from storage

encoding

process of putting information into the memory system

automatic processing

unconscious processing of incidental or well learned information

effortful processing

active processing of information that needs the sustained conscious effort

storage

process of maintaining or keeping information readily available

retrieval

process of getting information out of memory storage

recall

act of retrieving information or events from the past while lacking a specific cue to help in retrieving the information

recogntion

notice or “recognizing” something previously learned

recollection

act of retrieving information or events from the past while having specific cues to help retrieve information

Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart’s levels of processing model

how long and how ell we remember information depends on how deeply we process the information when it is encoded

shallow processing

processing information based on its surface characteristics

deep processing

processing information with consideration to its meaning

Atkinson-Shiffrin three stage model of memory

memory involves the stages of sensory memory, short term memory, and long term memory

sensory memory

hold an exact copy of incoming information for just a few seconds

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

haphtic memory

a momentary sensory memory of tactile stimuli

short term memory (STM)

activated memory that holds a few items briefly before information is forgotten or stored depending on how much you pay attention to the information and how much you rehearse it

long term memory (LTM)

relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system

Baddeley’s working memory

the brief, immediate memory for the limited amount of material that you are currently processing

memory span

maximum length of a sequence of items that can be reproduced from memory following a single presentation

chunking

memory trick that involves taking individual elements of a large list and grouping them together into elements with related meaning

maintenance rehearsal

the direct repetition of information to keep active in the short term memory (STM)

explicit “conscious” memory (declarative memory)

we consciously try to recall a specific event or piece of information

episodic memory

recollection of specific events usually ones personal experiences

semantic memory

type of long term declarative memory that refers to facts, concepts, and ideas which we have accumulated over the course of our lives

implicit “unconscious” memory

memories that do not rely upon conscious recall activity

eidetic memory

ability to vividly recall an image you were exposed to but only briefly

memory consolidation

strengthens memories by forming new patterns of communication between neurons for a newly acquired memory (process of turning a memory into a long term memory)

long term potential (LTP)

an increase in a cells firing potential after brief rapid stimulation

amygdala

center of emotions and motivations, involved in regulation of memory consolidation

cerebellum

plays role in motor control and movement also plays a role in cognitive functions such as attention and language

basal ganglia

key part of the network of brain cells and nerves that control your body’s involuntary movements

Hermann Ebbinghays’s forgetting curve (storage decay)

decreasing ability for the brain to retain information over time

trace decay theory

when something new is learned, a memory “trace” is formed in the brain and over time the trace begins to fade and disappear unless it is occasionally used (more for STM not LTM)

retrograde amnesia

someone forgets their past but is able to form new memories

anterograde amnesia

when someone cannot make new memories, but has old ones

serial positioning effect

people remember first and last items more than the middle

primacy effect

an individuals tendency to better remember the first piece of information they encounter than the information they receive later on

recency effect

cognitive bias that things that cam last are remembered more clearly than those that came first

retrieval failure

where information is in the LTM, but cannot be accessed/recalled because of inadequate or missing retrieval cues

tip of the tongue state

a state in which one cannot quite recall a familiar word but can recall words of similar meaning and form

encoding failure

when information never enters the LTM

proactive (previous) interference

old information gets in the way of new information (P.O.R.N.)

retroactive (recent) interference

new information gets in the way of old information (R.N.P.O.)