History of Christianity Exam 2

FRIDAY - Oct 31

Stoicism

Philosophy emphasizing living in harmony with Logos, the rational guiding principle of the universe. Teaches apatheia (control of emotions) and fulfilling one’s duty or calling. Influenced early Christian thought.

Cynicism

Philosophy advocating a simple life in harmony with nature, warning against distractions like possessions or social demands. Followers often traveled and earned a living modestly. Paul and Jesus reflect Cynic principles.

Neoplatonism

Mystical philosophy centered on The One/God. Humans must ascend from the physical world (desires, death, noise) to unite with God. Influenced Augustine

Isis

Egyptian mystery religion centered on the goddess Isis, symbolized by the ankh. Offered eternal life and blessings. Popular depiction: Isis nursing Horus, influencing Christian imagery of Mary and Jesus

Mithras

Persian god of a Roman mystery religion. Born from a stone on December 25, depicted slaying a bull. Worship in Mithraeums; rituals symbolized rebirth. Popular with soldiers, competed with Christianity

Marcion

Teacher from Sinope who rejected the Old Testament, trusting only Luke and Paul’s letters. Wrote the Antithesis. Highlights early debates over the New Testament canon

Muratorian Canon

2nd–3rd century list of Christian writings including most NT books, Wisdom of Solomon, Apocalypse of Peter and John, but omitting Hebrews, James, 1 & 2 Peter, and 3 John. Shows the careful formation of the NT canon

Holy Spirit & Tradition

Belief that God works through history, including Bible formation. Catholics emphasize tradition and Church authority, asserting that “the Church made the Bible

Canonical Criteria

• Ancient: written near Jesus’ time

• Apostolic: by an apostle or disciple

• Catholic: widely accepted

• Orthodox: consistent with apostolic teaching

Montanism

Movement claiming direct revelation from the Holy Spirit, rejecting Scripture as necessary. Included female leaders Priscilla and Maximilla. Predicted Christ’s return to Pepuza

Demiurge

In Gnosticism, a lesser being who created the physical/evil universe. Formed by Sophia after rupturing the pleroma, trapping divine sparks in human bodies. Symbolizes Gnostic dualism

Docetism

Gnostic belief that Christ only seemed human. Jesus did not truly die; his spirit either left his body or someone else died in his place. Reflects rejection of the material world

Apostles’ Creed

Early Christian summary of faith, open and universal, affirming Jesus truly suffered, died, and rose, countering Gnostic claims that Christ was not human

Julian the Apostate

Roman emperor (r. 361–365) who rejected Christianity, promoted Paganism and Neoplatonism, restricted Christian influence, and died in battle in Persia

Manicheism

Dualistic religion founded by Mani (3rd century CE), blending Zoroastrianism, Christianity, Buddhism. Teaches cosmic struggle between light and darkness. Salvation via knowledge, asceticism, moral life

City of God

Augustine’s work contrasting the City of God (love of God) with the earthly city (self-love). Humans serve peace and justice on earth; kingdoms rise and fall, but the Church endures. Introduces Just War Theory

Donatism

4th-century heresy asserting the Church should be pure, rejecting lapsed clergy. Sacraments by unfaithful ministers are invalid. Emphasizes martyrdom and holiness over inclusivity

Pelagianism

Belief of Pelagius denying original sin. Humans can live sinless lives through free will and moral effort, without divine grace. Contrasts with Augustine’s amor Dei (love of God).

Orthodoxy

Traditional Christianity, preserving early Christian teachings. Central beliefs include the Trinity and natures of Christ. Emphasizes icons as portals to the divine

Deification

Eastern Orthodox concept where a believer becomes united with God and shares in His divine nature, growing into the likeness of Christ

Synergy

Eastern Orthodox idea that salvation involves cooperation between God’s grace and human free will. God chooses; humans must actively choose God

Symphonia

Byzantine concept of harmony between Church and state, with the Church providing moral guidance and the state maintaining order and justice

John of Damascus

 8th-century theologian and Church Father who defended icons during the Iconoclast controversy. Wrote On Holy Images and The Fount of Wisdom

Macrina

Eldest sibling of the Great Cappadocians, dedicated her life to faith after her fiancé died. Founder of Greek monasticism

Adoptionism

Monarchianist view claiming God adopted Jesus, imparting divinity, rather than Jesus being truly God by nature. Rejected by mainstream Christianity

Modalism

Teaches God exists in three modes or “masks”, like ice, liquid, steam. Denies distinct persons of the Trinity and their interactions; rejected by mainstream Christianity

Arianism

Arius taught the Son is like God but does not share the same substance. Popular in late Roman Empire but rejected for denying the Trinity and creating a “tertium quid.”

Trinitarianism

Doctrine (Tertullian, Alexander of Alexandria) that God exists as one being in three persons. The Son is eternally begotten of the Father, sharing the same divine substance

Council of Nicaea

325 CE council resolving the Arian controversy, affirming the Son is homoousios (same substance) as the Father and establishing the Nicene Creed

Athanasius

Bishop of Alexandria (296–373) and staunch defender of the Trinity. Exiled five times depending on the emperor’s stance on Arianism. Wrote On the Incarnation and Life of Antony. Key figure in resolving the Trinitarian debate and upholding Nicene orthodoxy, later affirmed at the Council of Constantinople

Alexandrian School

Theological school in Alexandria emphasizing the divinity of Christ as the foundation of his being, viewing his humanity as secondary. Associated with Monophysitism (Christ’s one divine nature) and Apollinaris, who saw Christ’s humanity as a vessel for divine consciousness. Cyril of Alexandria taught that Mary is Theotokos (“God-bearer”), affirming Christ’s full divinity

Antiochene School

Theological school emphasizing Christ’s full humanity, teaching that he shared human experiences to truly redeem humanity. Opposed excessive focus on divinity, de-emphasizing Mary as Theotokos. Advocated that if Christ were not fully human, God could not fully reach humanity

Council of Chalcedon (451 CE)

Declared Christ is fully divine and fully human, uniting both natures without division or confusion. Aimed to reconcile Alexandrian and Antiochene views. Affirmed Mary as Theotokos, a stance embraced by Catholic and Orthodox churches but not Protestants. Neither school was fully satisfied, but the definition became orthodox teaching

Theotokos

Title meaning “God-bearer,” affirming that Mary gave birth to the divine Christ. Defended by Cyril of Alexandria against those denying Christ’s divinity. Highlights Catholic and Orthodox reverence for Mary’s role in salvation history, raising questions about her holiness and divine maternity

Irenaeus

Bishop of Lyon (130–202), disciple of Polycarp, who was a disciple of John. Fought Gnosticism and heresy through Against Heresies, promoting apostolic tradition and the unity of the Church. Taught recapitulation—that Christ redoes and redeems every stage of human life. Declared all churches must align with the Church of Rome

Clement of Alexandria

Head of the Catechetical School of Alexandria; blended Greek philosophy and Christianity. Divided believers into pistics (faith-based) and pneumatics (intellectually enlightened). Advocated reason and knowledge in faith, emphasizing intellectual pursuit as part of spiritual growth

Origen

Successor to Clement at age 18; considered the Father of Biblical Studies. Created the Hexapla, a six-column comparison of Hebrew and Greek Old Testament texts. Wrote the first systematic theology and biblical commentaries. Emphasized allegorical interpretation and endured torture for his faith

Ambrose of Milan

Bishop of Milan (appointed by public acclamation) and major figure in defending Nicene Christianity. Confronted Emperor Theodosius, demanding public repentance for violence. Model preacher and theologian whose authority strengthened the Church’s independence from the state

Jerome

Scholar and translator of the Vulgate, the Latin Bible (405 CE). Lover of classical literature who struggled between pagan learning and Christian devotion. His correspondence with Augustine shaped Western theology and biblical interpretation

Basil the Great

Brother of Macrina and Bishop of Caesarea. Founder of Eastern monasticism, advocate for the poor, and creator of the first hospital. Promoted communal monastic life and charity as essential Christian virtues

Gregory of Nyssa

Brother of Basil and Macrina, theologian, and mystic writer. Authored Life of Macrina and deep theological works on the Trinity and divine ascent (Life of Moses). Emphasized spiritual transformation and union with God

Gregory of Nazianzus

Close friend of Basil, Bishop of Constantinople, and defender of Trinitarian doctrine. His Theological Orations profoundly shaped Christian understanding of the Trinity and Holy Spirit. Renowned for eloquence and poetic theology centered on divine mystery

John Chrysostom

Archbishop of Constantinople known as “John the Golden-Mouthed” for his eloquent preaching. Advocated for social justice, humility, and care for the poor. Exiled for criticizing corruption and imperial excess. His sermons remain influential for their moral and liturgical insight

Iconoclasts/Iconodules

Iconoclasts opposed the use of icons, viewing them as idolatry; Iconodules defended icons as sacred images that direct worship toward God. The controversy divided the Byzantine Church until icons were restored in 843 CE, reinforcing their role in Orthodox spirituality

Armenia

The first nation to adopt Christianity as its state religion (early 4th century). Strongly Monophysite in theology and closely tied to Eastern Christianity. Developed a distinct national church preserving early traditions

Ethiopia

One of the oldest Christian nations, converting in the 4th century through Egyptian missionaries. The Ethiopian Church maintained Monophysite beliefs and a strong connection to Egyptian Christianity, preserving ancient liturgies and traditions

Russia

Adopted Christianity in 988 CE under Prince Vladimir, founding the Russian Orthodox Church. Combined Byzantine liturgy and theology with Slavic culture, creating a strong link between church and state. Orthodoxy became central to Russian identity and art, especially through icons

Photian Schism/Filioque

9th-century conflict between Eastern and Western Churches over the Filioque clause (“and the Son”) added to the Nicene Creed. The West taught that the Holy Spirit proceeds from both Father and Son; the East rejected this as altering the original creed. Deepened mistrust, foreshadowing the Great Schism of 1054

Epicureanism (Philosophical Rel) 

leisure, simple pleasures, avoid fear of gods & death, balance life

Neoplatonism (Phil Rel)

soul’s ascent from physical world → truth, beauty, good, eternal life; triangle model

Mystery Religions

Accessible to all, secret initiation, rites of purification & rebirth, Promised fertility & eternal life

Christianity as philosophical/mystery religion

• Baptism = ritual of rebirth

• Lord’s Supper = “the mystery”

• Promise of eternal life

• Mother & child imagery (Mary/Jesus)

Elaine Pagels

supports flexible canon; could include alternative gospels (e.g., Thomas) for insight

Gnosticism

Belief that secret knowledge (gnosis) brings salvation. Taught that the material world is evil, created by a lesser god called the Demiurge, and that humans have divine sparks trapped in their bodies. Salvation comes through learning spiritual truth and escaping the physical world - Christ appeared as human, but was not human. Apostles Creed: affirms incarnation, crucifixion, resurrection, bodily reality

Donatists

Church should only include “pure” Christians; lapsed clergy invalid

Pelagians

humans can achieve sinless life through effort alone; grace not essential

Augustine (belif on grace)

humans need God’s grace; sin inherited (original sin); cannot achieve perfection alone

Western (Augustinian)

• Focus on original sin, grace, rational theology, moral perfection

• God’s plan, personal salvation, ethics

Eastern (Orthodox):

• Theosis (becoming like God), emphasis on mystery, liturgy, icons

• Holistic spirituality, communal, ritual focus

Docetism

Jesus only appeared human → undermines salvation

Nestorianism

separates divine & human → risks duality, less unity

Monophysitism

overly divine → human nature lost