AP Psych Unit 5

Memory

The process by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved over time.

Encoding

The process of converting information into a form that can be stored in memory.

Storage

The retention of encoded information over time.

Retrieval

The process of accessing and bringing stored information into consciousness.

Parallel Processing

The brain’s ability to process multiple aspects of a problem or stimulus simultaneously.

Sensory Memory

The brief storage of sensory information before it is processed into short-term or long-term memory.

Short-Term Memory

A temporary storage system that holds a limited amount of information for a short duration, typically around 20-30 seconds.

Long-Term Memory

The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of information, including knowledge, skills, and experiences.

Working Memory

An active processing system that holds and manipulates information temporarily for cognitive tasks like problem-solving and decision-making.

Explicit Memory

Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare, also known as declarative memory.

Effortful Processing

Encoding that requires conscious effort and attention, such as studying for a test.

Automatic Processing

Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, as well as well-learned information.

Implicit Memory

Retention of learned skills or conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection, also called nondeclarative memory.

Iconic Memory

A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli, lasting only a fraction of a second.

Echoic Memory

A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli, lasting a few seconds even when attention is elsewhere.

Chunking

Organizing information into meaningful units to make it easier to remember.

Mnemonics

Memory aids or strategies that use vivid imagery and organizational techniques to improve recall.

Spacing Effect

The tendency for distributed study or practice to produce better long-term retention than cramming.

Testing Effect

The enhanced memory performance resulting from retrieving information rather than simply rereading it.

Shallow Processing

Encoding information based on surface-level features, leading to weaker memory retention.

Deep Processing

Encoding information based on its meaning, leading to stronger memory retention.

Hippocampus

A brain structure in the limbic system that is critical for the formation of explicit memories.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

A long-lasting strengthening of synaptic connections, believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

Flashbulb Memory

A vivid, detailed memory of an emotionally significant event, often retained with high confidence but not always accurate.

Recall

Retrieving information from memory without external cues, such as answering a fill-in-the-blank question.

Recognition

Identifying previously learned information from a set of choices, such as in multiple-choice questions.

Relearning

The process of learning information again, which typically takes less time than the initial learning.

Priming

The unconscious activation of particular associations in memory, influencing perception and response.

Mood-Congruent Memory

The tendency to recall experiences that match one’s current mood, whether positive or negative.

Serial Position Effect

The tendency to recall the first and last items in a list better than the middle items.

Anterograde Amnesia

The inability to form new memories after a brain injury, while past memories remain intact.

Retrograde Amnesia

The inability to recall past memories from before a brain injury, while the ability to form new memories remains.

Proactive Interference

When old information disrupts the recall of newly learned information.

Retroactive Interference

When new information makes it harder to recall previously learned information.

Repression

A defense mechanism where distressing memories are unconsciously blocked from awareness.

Misinformation Effect

The tendency for post-event information to distort memory of the original event.

Source Amnesia

The inability to remember where or how one learned something, often leading to misattribution of the source.

Déjà Vu

The eerie feeling that one has experienced a situation before, possibly due to unconscious memory retrieval.

Cognition

The mental processes involved in acquiring, processing, and using knowledge.

Concept

A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people to simplify thinking.

Prototype

The best or most typical example of a category that helps with quick classification.

Creativity

The ability to generate novel and valuable ideas.

Convergent Thinking

A type of thinking that narrows down multiple solutions to find the single best answer.

Divergent Thinking

A type of thinking that expands the number of possible solutions, fostering creativity.

Algorithm

A step-by-step procedure that guarantees a correct solution to a problem.

Heuristic

A mental shortcut or rule of thumb that simplifies decision-making but does not guarantee a correct solution.

Insight

A sudden realization of a problem’s solution without a step-by-step approach.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to seek out, interpret, and remember information that supports preexisting beliefs.

Mental Set

The tendency to approach problems using a strategy that has worked in the past.

Intuition

An effortless, immediate, and automatic feeling or thought, often used for decision-making.

Representativeness Heuristic

Judging the likelihood of something based on how well it matches a prototype.

Availability Heuristic

Estimating the likelihood of an event based on how easily examples come to mind.

Overconfidence

The tendency to be more confident in one’s judgments and knowledge than is objectively justified.

Belief Perseverance

Clinging to one’s initial beliefs even after they have been discredited.

Framing

The way an issue is presented, which can significantly influence decisions.

Language

A system of spoken, written, or signed symbols used for communication.

Phoneme

The smallest unit of sound in a language that can distinguish meaning.

Morpheme

The smallest unit of meaning in a language.

Grammar

The system of rules governing the structure and use of a language.

Babbling Stage

The stage in language development when infants spontaneously produce various sounds.

One-Word Stage

The stage in language development when children begin to speak single words to represent thoughts.

Two-Word Stage

The stage in language development when children start using two-word statements.

Telegraphic Speech

Early speech stage in which a child speaks using mostly nouns and verbs.

Aphasia

A language disorder caused by brain damage affecting communication abilities.

Broca’s Area

A region in the left frontal lobe responsible for speech production.

Wernicke’s Area

A region in the left temporal lobe responsible for language comprehension.

Linguistic Determinism

The hypothesis that language shapes the way people think.

Richard Atkinson & Richard Shiffrin

Developed the Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory describing its three stages.

George A. Miller

Proposed that short-term memory has a capacity of '7 ± 2' items.

Hermann Ebbinghaus

Pioneered the study of memory, introducing concepts like the forgetting curve.

Eric Kandel

Studied neuroscience of memory and its link to synaptic changes in the brain.

Elizabeth Loftus

A leading researcher on false memories and the misinformation effect.

Robert Sternberg

Developed the triarchic theory of intelligence including analytical, creative, and practical intelligence.

Wolfgang Köhler

Studied insight learning in chimpanzees, demonstrating sudden problem-solving.

Amos Tversky & Daniel Kahneman

Pioneered research on heuristics and biases in decision-making.

Steven Pinker

A cognitive psychologist who argues that language is an innate ability.

Noam Chomsky

Proposed the theory of universal grammar, suggesting humans are predisposed to learn language.

Paul Broca

Discovered Broca’s area in the brain essential for speech production.

Carl Wernicke

Discovered Wernicke’s area critical for language comprehension.

Benjamin Lee Whorf

Developed linguistic determinism, suggesting language shapes thought.

Intelligence

The ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and adapt to new situations.

Intelligence Test

A standardized assessment designed to measure cognitive abilities.

General Intelligence (g)

A factor that underlies all cognitive abilities proposed by Charles Spearman.

Factor Analysis

A statistical method used to identify clusters of related abilities in intelligence testing.

Savant Syndrome

A condition where a person with limited mental abilities has an exceptional skill.

Grit

Passion and perseverance for long-term goals linked to success beyond intelligence.

Emotional Intelligence

The ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions effectively.

Mental Age

A concept representing the age at which a person's cognitive performance matches typical development.

Stanford-Binet

An intelligence test developed from Binet’s work and widely used to assess intelligence.

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

A measure of intelligence calculated as (mental age ÷ chronological age) × 100.

Achievement Test

A test designed to assess what a person has learned.

Aptitude Test

A test designed to predict future performance or the ability to learn new skills.

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

The most widely used intelligence test, measuring verbal and nonverbal abilities.

Standardization

The process of establishing norms and procedures for administering a test.

Normal Curve

A symmetrical bell-shaped graph representing the distribution of traits, including intelligence.

Reliability

The extent to which a test produces consistent results over time.

Validity

The extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure.

Content Validity

The extent to which a test covers the subject matter it is supposed to assess.

Predictive Validity

The extent to which a test accurately predicts future performance.

Cohort

A group of individuals who share a common characteristic, often used in studies.