AP Psych Unit 5

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115 Terms

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Memory
The process by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved over time.
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Encoding
The process of converting information into a form that can be stored in memory.
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Storage
The retention of encoded information over time.
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Retrieval
The process of accessing and bringing stored information into consciousness.
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Parallel Processing
The brain’s ability to process multiple aspects of a problem or stimulus simultaneously.
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Sensory Memory
The brief storage of sensory information before it is processed into short-term or long-term memory.
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Short-Term Memory
A temporary storage system that holds a limited amount of information for a short duration, typically around 20-30 seconds.
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Long-Term Memory
The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of information, including knowledge, skills, and experiences.
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Working Memory
An active processing system that holds and manipulates information temporarily for cognitive tasks like problem-solving and decision-making.
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Explicit Memory
Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare, also known as declarative memory.
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Effortful Processing
Encoding that requires conscious effort and attention, such as studying for a test.
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Automatic Processing
Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, as well as well-learned information.
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Implicit Memory
Retention of learned skills or conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection, also called nondeclarative memory.
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Iconic Memory
A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli, lasting only a fraction of a second.
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Echoic Memory
A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli, lasting a few seconds even when attention is elsewhere.
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Chunking
Organizing information into meaningful units to make it easier to remember.
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Mnemonics
Memory aids or strategies that use vivid imagery and organizational techniques to improve recall.
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Spacing Effect
The tendency for distributed study or practice to produce better long-term retention than cramming.
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Testing Effect
The enhanced memory performance resulting from retrieving information rather than simply rereading it.
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Shallow Processing
Encoding information based on surface-level features, leading to weaker memory retention.
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Deep Processing
Encoding information based on its meaning, leading to stronger memory retention.
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Hippocampus
A brain structure in the limbic system that is critical for the formation of explicit memories.
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Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)
A long-lasting strengthening of synaptic connections, believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.
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Flashbulb Memory
A vivid, detailed memory of an emotionally significant event, often retained with high confidence but not always accurate.
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Recall
Retrieving information from memory without external cues, such as answering a fill-in-the-blank question.
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Recognition
Identifying previously learned information from a set of choices, such as in multiple-choice questions.
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Relearning
The process of learning information again, which typically takes less time than the initial learning.
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Priming
The unconscious activation of particular associations in memory, influencing perception and response.
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Mood-Congruent Memory
The tendency to recall experiences that match one’s current mood, whether positive or negative.
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Serial Position Effect
The tendency to recall the first and last items in a list better than the middle items.
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Anterograde Amnesia
The inability to form new memories after a brain injury, while past memories remain intact.
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Retrograde Amnesia
The inability to recall past memories from before a brain injury, while the ability to form new memories remains.
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Proactive Interference
When old information disrupts the recall of newly learned information.
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Retroactive Interference
When new information makes it harder to recall previously learned information.
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Repression
A defense mechanism where distressing memories are unconsciously blocked from awareness.
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Misinformation Effect
The tendency for post-event information to distort memory of the original event.
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Source Amnesia
The inability to remember where or how one learned something, often leading to misattribution of the source.
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Déjà Vu
The eerie feeling that one has experienced a situation before, possibly due to unconscious memory retrieval.
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Cognition
The mental processes involved in acquiring, processing, and using knowledge.
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Concept
A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people to simplify thinking.
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Prototype
The best or most typical example of a category that helps with quick classification.
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Creativity
The ability to generate novel and valuable ideas.
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Convergent Thinking
A type of thinking that narrows down multiple solutions to find the single best answer.
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Divergent Thinking
A type of thinking that expands the number of possible solutions, fostering creativity.
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Algorithm
A step-by-step procedure that guarantees a correct solution to a problem.
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Heuristic
A mental shortcut or rule of thumb that simplifies decision-making but does not guarantee a correct solution.
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Insight
A sudden realization of a problem’s solution without a step-by-step approach.
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Confirmation Bias
The tendency to seek out, interpret, and remember information that supports preexisting beliefs.
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Mental Set
The tendency to approach problems using a strategy that has worked in the past.
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Intuition
An effortless, immediate, and automatic feeling or thought, often used for decision-making.
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Representativeness Heuristic
Judging the likelihood of something based on how well it matches a prototype.
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Availability Heuristic
Estimating the likelihood of an event based on how easily examples come to mind.
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Overconfidence
The tendency to be more confident in one’s judgments and knowledge than is objectively justified.
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Belief Perseverance
Clinging to one’s initial beliefs even after they have been discredited.
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Framing
The way an issue is presented, which can significantly influence decisions.
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Language
A system of spoken, written, or signed symbols used for communication.
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Phoneme
The smallest unit of sound in a language that can distinguish meaning.
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Morpheme
The smallest unit of meaning in a language.
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Grammar
The system of rules governing the structure and use of a language.
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Babbling Stage
The stage in language development when infants spontaneously produce various sounds.
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One-Word Stage
The stage in language development when children begin to speak single words to represent thoughts.
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Two-Word Stage
The stage in language development when children start using two-word statements.
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Telegraphic Speech
Early speech stage in which a child speaks using mostly nouns and verbs.
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Aphasia
A language disorder caused by brain damage affecting communication abilities.
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Broca’s Area
A region in the left frontal lobe responsible for speech production.
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Wernicke’s Area
A region in the left temporal lobe responsible for language comprehension.
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Linguistic Determinism
The hypothesis that language shapes the way people think.
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Richard Atkinson & Richard Shiffrin
Developed the Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory describing its three stages.
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George A. Miller
Proposed that short-term memory has a capacity of '7 ± 2' items.
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Hermann Ebbinghaus
Pioneered the study of memory, introducing concepts like the forgetting curve.
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Eric Kandel
Studied neuroscience of memory and its link to synaptic changes in the brain.
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Elizabeth Loftus
A leading researcher on false memories and the misinformation effect.
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Robert Sternberg
Developed the triarchic theory of intelligence including analytical, creative, and practical intelligence.
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Wolfgang Köhler
Studied insight learning in chimpanzees, demonstrating sudden problem-solving.
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Amos Tversky & Daniel Kahneman
Pioneered research on heuristics and biases in decision-making.
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Steven Pinker
A cognitive psychologist who argues that language is an innate ability.
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Noam Chomsky
Proposed the theory of universal grammar, suggesting humans are predisposed to learn language.
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Paul Broca
Discovered Broca’s area in the brain essential for speech production.
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Carl Wernicke
Discovered Wernicke’s area critical for language comprehension.
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Benjamin Lee Whorf
Developed linguistic determinism, suggesting language shapes thought.
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Intelligence
The ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and adapt to new situations.
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Intelligence Test
A standardized assessment designed to measure cognitive abilities.
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General Intelligence (g)
A factor that underlies all cognitive abilities proposed by Charles Spearman.
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Factor Analysis
A statistical method used to identify clusters of related abilities in intelligence testing.
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Savant Syndrome
A condition where a person with limited mental abilities has an exceptional skill.
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Grit
Passion and perseverance for long-term goals linked to success beyond intelligence.
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Emotional Intelligence
The ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions effectively.
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Mental Age
A concept representing the age at which a person's cognitive performance matches typical development.
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Stanford-Binet
An intelligence test developed from Binet’s work and widely used to assess intelligence.
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Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
A measure of intelligence calculated as (mental age ÷ chronological age) × 100.
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Achievement Test
A test designed to assess what a person has learned.
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Aptitude Test
A test designed to predict future performance or the ability to learn new skills.
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Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
The most widely used intelligence test, measuring verbal and nonverbal abilities.
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Standardization
The process of establishing norms and procedures for administering a test.
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Normal Curve
A symmetrical bell-shaped graph representing the distribution of traits, including intelligence.
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Reliability
The extent to which a test produces consistent results over time.
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Validity
The extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure.
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Content Validity
The extent to which a test covers the subject matter it is supposed to assess.
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Predictive Validity
The extent to which a test accurately predicts future performance.
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Cohort
A group of individuals who share a common characteristic, often used in studies.