personality 3 SAQ

• Outline (not simply list) the three assumptions universally shared by different trait theorist.  (SAQ)

1. People possess broad predispositions called traits, to respond in particular ways (people are born with certain traits that influence how they behave, feel, or think in different situations)

2. There is a direct correspondence between a persons a) performance of trait-related actions and b) possession of the corresponding trait ( there is a direct link between how a person acts and their underlying traits; if a person frequently reports anxious experiences, they are higher in the trait of anxiety)

3. Human behavior and personality can be organized into a hierarchy

• What is meant by the notion of functional autonomy? Provide an original example. (SAQ)

• In adult life, motives become independent of, or autonomous from, earlier tension-reducing drives. In other words, behaviors or habits that start out for one reason can eventually continue on their own, even after the original reason for them has disappeared

• Example: a person may start running to lose weight, but may continue running because they enjoy it, even though weight loss is no longer the goal

• Outline the contrast between Allport’s idiographic approach and nomothetic approaches to research. What is the limitation of idiographic approaches in personality research? [SAQ]

-       An idiographic strategy focuses on the potentially unique individual. 

-       the nomothetic approach focuses on general laws or principles that apply across people. 

-       Limitation: His ideographic approach was individual to a specific person and did not allow comparisons to others on isolated trait variables.

Briefly summarize the nature of the three super-factors in Eysenck model? [SAQ]

·      Extraversion – sociability, activity, liveliness, and excitability.

·      Neuroticism – anxiety, depression, shyness, and moodiness.

·      Psychoticism – aggressiveness, lack of empathy, interpersonal coldness, antisocial behaviour.

• Briefly outline Eysenck’s arousal model of extraversion and introversion? [SAQ]

Eysenck suggested that individual variations in introversion–extraversion reflect individual differences in the neurophysiological functioning of the brain’s cortex. '

• The idea is that introverts are more arousable; they experience more cortical arousal from events in the world. As a result, highly intense social stimuli (e.g., a loud party) make them over aroused—an aversive state that they avoid. 

• The social behavior of introverts, then, is more inhibited because of the relatively greater arousal they experience. Conversely, extraverts experience less cortical arousal than intro- verts from a given stimulus and therefore seek out more intense social experiences

Describe (not simply list) three criticisms of Eysenck’s theory. [SAQ]

·      1. His measures did not align with his theory: he was concerned with neural factors like cortical arousal but his methods of data collection were self-reports which are not able to measure brain activity.

·      2. He underestimated the complexity of the brain: Eysencks theory focused mainly on cortical arousal, but that was too simple because it didn’t capture how the brain systems related to personality are interconnected

·      3. Cognitive factors affect performance: Eysenck focused only on small brain systems that are similar among many mammals, he didn’t take into consideration the human ability to think.

Describe patterns of changes that occur over the life span for the Big Five. [SAQ]

·      Overall, personality traits remain relatively stable over time. However, older adults are significantly lower in neuroticism, extraversion and openness, and higher in agreeableness and conscientiousness than adolescents and young adults.

·      On average, teenagers seem to be beset by more anxieties and concerns with acceptance and self-esteem (higher N), to spend more time on the phone and in social activities with their friends (higher E), are more open to all kinds of experience and experimentation (higher O), but also are more critical and demanding of specific others and society in general (lower A) and less conscientious and responsible than others (parents, teachers, police) expect them to be (lower C).

·      Describe the three key claims made by the authors of the Big 5 Theory, and an example for each of evidence that contradicts the claim. (p 228) [SAQ

·      1. Traits are not influenced by environment and therefore they are set in stone.  Twenge (2002) reasoned that cultural changes across the 20th century might have caused changes in personality, with higher divorce rates and crime rates, smaller family size, and less contact with one’s extended family (due to job and educational mobility) increasing level of anxiety. 

·      2. The five factor structure is universal

·      both the number of trait factors and the content of the individual-difference dimensions is found to vary across cultures

·      3. All individuals possess the factors – There is no evidence to support this claim.

·       

·      Contrast Eysenck’s “top down” approach to identifying the structure of personality with the bottom approach reflected in Gray’s Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory.. [Discussed as well in lecture] [SAQ]

·      Eysenck – the statistics came first and  then the hunt for underlying biological mechanisms came second

·      RST – identify the brain behavioural systems, then relate them to personality

Briefly describe each of the three RST systems [SAQ]

•    Behavioural Activation System

  • Positive emotion

  • Reflected in sensitivity to conditioned reward cues

  • Increased cortical arousal

  • Facilitates approach behaviour (readiness to take risks)

•    Fight, flight or freeze system

  • Regulates reaction to aversive stimuli

  • “get me out of this place”

  • Escape, avoidance behaviour

• Behavioral inhibition system

  • Associated with negative emotion: anxiety

  • Fear vs anxiety.

  • Fear – motivates movement away from threat

  • Anxiety – motivates movement towards threat

·      Describe three strengths and three weaknesses of trait theory (don’t simply list these from Table 8.3, describe in what sense each is a strength/weakness.  [SAq]

strengths:

1. active research effort: research is still active and ongoing and refinements and adjustments can be made; test keeps getting adapted

2. interesting hypotheses: the hypotheses are testable and interesting

3. potential ties to biology: – they were able to find some evidence that genetics has something to do with personality traits.

   weaknesses:

1. the method (factor analysis): While factor analysis is useful for identifying trait dimensions, it may not provide insights into the underlying causes of personality traits or their complex interactions

2. what does a trait include? : There is uncertainty about what exactly constitutes a "trait," with debates over whether traits are merely behavioral patterns or if they also include deeper cognitive and emotional aspects

3. what is left out or neglected: Trait theory often neglects the influence of situational context and personal growth, focusing on stable traits without adequately considering how individuals adapt or change over time

 Describe three processes thought to account for increase in stability of personality over time. [SAQ]

Maturity Principle: increases in agreeableness and conscientiousness and decrease in neuroticism – due to psychological maturation, taking on normative adult roles (social environment).

o   “Intrinsic maturation” may have been wired into our DNA to have this maturation

Cumulative continuity principle: accounts for steady increase in rank order stability over time

o   Niche building: tendency to seek out, be drawn to environments and end up in environments that are correlated with your traits. Promotes persistence of trait related behaviour, cuts off opportunities / likelihood of change

o   Development of and commitment to maintaining identity: identity provides reference point. Treatment by others

Corresponsive principle: traits that lead one to engage in a particular experience are the same traits that are most likely to change as a result of that experience.

o   E.g. if people assume more leadership positions because they are more dominant, then they will become more dominant through ther experience as leaders.