AP_Comp_Gov-_All_the_Notes

Dependent

refers to a type of variable in research that is affected by changes in another variable, known as the independent variable.

Independent

is a type of variable in research that is manipulated or changed to observe its effect on another variable, known as the dependent variable.

Correlation

a relationship or mutual dependence between two or more variables, where a change in one variable is associated with a change in another.

Causality

refers to the principle that a change in one variable directly produces a change in another variable.

Normative

refers to statements or judgments that express values, opinions, or beliefs about what ought to be, often contrasted with positive statements that describe reality.

Empirical

based on observation or experience rather than theory or pure logic.

Qualitative analysis

a research method that examines non-numerical data to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences.

Quantitative analysis

a research method that focuses on numerical data and statistical analysis to identify patterns or test hypotheses.

GDP per capita

a measure of a country's economic output that accounts for its number of people, calculated by dividing Gross Domestic Product by total population.

Gini Coefficient

a metric that measures income inequality within a population, ranging from 0 (perfect equality) to 1 (perfect inequality).

Human Development Index

a composite statistic of life expectancy, education, and per capita income indicators, used to rank countries into four tiers of human development.

Nation

a large group of people united by common history, culture, or language, often occupying a specific territory.

Nationalism

a political ideology that emphasizes the interests and culture of a particular nation, often in opposition to foreign influence or control.

State

a nation or territory considered as an organized political community under a government.

Sovereignty

the authority of a state to govern itself or another state, free from external interference.

Nation-state

a political entity characterized by a defined territory, permanent population, and a centralized government, operating independently from others.

Multinational/ethnic state

a state that comprises multiple nationalities or ethnic groups, often leading to diverse cultural identities within its borders.

Social cleavages

the divisions in society that create different social groups based on factors such as class, ethnicity, religion, or political ideology, influencing political behavior and opinions.

Coinciding/polarizing cleavages

social divisions that align with one another, creating distinct groups that may lead to increased political conflict.

Cross-cutting cleavages

the divisions in society that cut across different social groups, potentially alleviating tensions and allowing individuals to belong to multiple identity groups.

ideology

a set of beliefs and values that shapes an individual's or group's understanding of politics and society.

Political socialization

the process through which individuals acquire their political beliefs, values, and behaviors, often influenced by family, education, media, and social environment.

Liberalism

a political ideology advocating for individual rights, equality, and democratic governance, emphasizing civil liberties and social justice.

Libertarianism

a political ideology that emphasizes individual liberty, limited government, and free markets. Libertarians advocate for minimal state intervention in both personal and economic matters.

Authoritarianism

a governing system characterized by strong central power and limited political freedoms, where individual rights are often subordinated to the state.

Communism

a political and economic ideology advocating for a classless society in which all property is communally owned, with the aim of eliminating private ownership and providing equal distribution of resources.

Fascism

a far-right authoritarian ultranationalism, typically marked by dictatorial power, forcible suppression of opposition, and strong regimentation of society and the economy.

Socialism

a political and economic system that seeks to regulate the economy in the interests of the collective, advocating for social ownership of the means of production and distribution.

Neoliberalism

an economic and political approach that promotes free-market capitalism, deregulation, and reduction in government spending, emphasizing individual entrepreneurship and private ownership.

Globalism

an ideology that seeks to promote a global perspective and cooperation among nations to address issues that transcend borders, often emphasizing economic interdependence and cultural exchange.

Nationalism

a political ideology that emphasizes the interests and culture of a particular nation, often advocating for national sovereignty and independence.

Populism

a political approach that seeks to represent the interests of ordinary people, often contrasting them against the elite or establishment, and may emphasize nationalism or social justice.

Rule of Law

the principle that all individuals and institutions are subject to and accountable to the law, ensuring fairness and justice in governance.

Rule by Law

the principle that all individuals and institutions are accountable to the law, which should be applied equally and fairly.

Civil Society

the arena of uncoerced collective action around shared interests, purposes, and values, including non-governmental organizations and community groups.

Social Movements

organized efforts by groups to promote or resist social, political, or economic change.

Political Culture

the set of attitudes, beliefs, and sentiments that give order and meaning to a political process, shaping how individuals engage in politics.

Legitimacy

the right and acceptance of an authority, often a governing law or regime, recognized by the public as valid and justified.

Political efficacy

the belief that one's actions can influence political processes and that participation in politics is meaningful.

Regime

a form or system of government within a political entity, often defined by its structure and rules.

Government

the system or group of people governing an organized community, often a state.

Democratic Consolidation

the process through which a new democracy matures, in a way that means it is unlikely to revert to authoritarianism. This includes the establishment of political parties, rule of law, and civil liberties.

Illiberal democracy

a governing system where, although elections occur, citizens' rights and freedoms are limited, and the government manipulates or controls political processes.

Example’s of Illiberal Democracy

Russia and Nigeria

Head of state

the individual who serves as the chief public representative and often embodies the state's authority, fulfilling various ceremonial and constitutional duties.

Head of Government

the individual responsible for running the government and implementing laws, often leading the executive branch, and may have significant powers in decision-making.

Presidential

system of government where a president is the head of state and government, separate from the legislative branch.

Examples of Presidential systems

Mexico and Nigeria

Parlimentary

system of government in which the executive derives its democratic legitimacy from, and is directly accountable to, the legislature (parliament); the executive and legislative branches are interconnected.

Semi-presidential

system of government that features both a president and a prime minister, each with distinct powers and responsibilities, blending elements of presidential and parliamentary systems.

Unitary

system of government where power is concentrated in a central authority, with any administrative divisions subordinate to it.

Federal

system of government in which power is divided between a central authority and smaller political units, such as states or provinces, allowing for regional governance.

Unicameral

a legislative system with a single chamber or house, as opposed to a bicameral system.

Bicameral

system of government with two legislative chambers or houses, often a lower and an upper house, to create laws.

Common Law

a legal system based on court precedents and judicial rulings rather than statutory laws. Common law evolves through the decisions made by judges in individual cases.

Civil/Code Law

a legal system that relies on comprehensive written statutes and codes to govern legal matters, contrasting with common law.

Sharia Law

a legal system based on Islamic principles derived from the Quran and Hadith, governing aspects of both private and public life.

Corporatist System

a political system where interest groups, such as business and labor organizations, play a significant role in policymaking, often structured by the state.

Pluralist system

a political system where multiple groups compete for power, allowing for diverse representation and influence in governance.

First Past the Post

an electoral system where the candidate with the most votes wins, regardless of whether they achieve an absolute majority.

Run-offs

a secondary election held when no candidate achieves the required threshold in the initial voting, allowing voters to choose between the top candidates.

Catch-all parties

Political parties that appeal to a broad spectrum of voters, often integrating diverse interests to secure electoral success.

Proportional Representation

an electoral system in which parties gain seats in the legislature in proportion to the number of votes they receive, aiming for a more equitable representation of diverse opinions.

Coalitions

alliances formed between multiple political parties to achieve a common goal or majority in governance.

Mixed system

An electoral system that combines elements of both proportional representation and winner-takes-all systems, allowing for varied representation in the legislature.

Supernational Organizations

entities formed by multiple countries that collaborate on shared interests, often in economic, social, or political areas.

IMF, World Bank

two major international financial institutions that provide loans and financial assistance to countries for development projects and economic stability.

World Trade Organization

An intergovernmental organization that regulates international trade, ensuring that trade flows as smoothly, predictably, and freely as possible among nations.

European Union

A political and economic union of member states located primarily in Europe, aimed at fostering integration, cooperation, and a single market among its members.

Foreign Direct Investment

Investment made by a company or individual in one country in business interests in another country, typically through establishing business operations or acquiring assets.

Economic liberalization

The process of reducing state intervention in the economy, promoting free markets and trade, and allowing for private enterprise to thrive.

Protectionism

goal is assist/protect economy through trade barriers, regulation, and subsidizing or nationalizing (government ownership) domestic industries

Resource Curse

a paradoxical situation where countries rich in natural resources experience slow economic growth and poor development outcomes due to issues like corruption and mismanagement.

Mexican Constitution of 1917

The fundamental law of Mexico that established a framework for social and economic rights, land redistribution, and political reforms following the Mexican Revolution.

Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI)

The dominant political party in Mexico for most of the 20th century, known for its control over elections and governance, promoting a mix of nationalism and social policies.

Sexenio

The six-year term served by the President of Mexico, established by the Mexican Constitution of 1917.

Ejidos

Communal land holdings in Mexico, established after the Mexican Revolution, intended for use by peasant farmers.

Import substitution industrialization

An economic policy aiming to replace foreign imports with domestic production, commonly adopted in Mexico in the mid-20th century to promote local industry.

Structural adjustment

Economic reforms aimed at reducing government intervention and promoting free markets, often in exchange for International Monetary Fund loans.

NAFTA

A trade agreement between the United States, Canada, and Mexico aimed at reducing trade barriers and increasing economic cooperation among the three countries.

Zapatista Uprising

An armed rebellion by the Zapatista Army of National Liberation in Mexico in 1994, advocating for indigenous rights and opposition to neoliberal policies.

Political Liberalization

The process of increasing democratic governance and civil liberties, often through reforms that reduce state control and promote individual freedoms.

National Electoral Institute

A key governing body in Mexico responsible for organizing federal elections, ensuring transparency, and promoting citizen participation in the democratic process.

Pluralism

A political system in which multiple groups can coexist, compete for power, and influence decision-making, ensuring that diverse viewpoints are represented.

Fox

President of Mexico from 2000 to 2006, Vicente Fox is known for his role in the transition to democracy and efforts to reform the electoral process.

Calderon

President of Mexico from 2006 to 2012, Felipe Calderón is known for his fight against drug cartels and implementing security measures to address the country's violence.

Pena Neito

President of Mexico from 2012 to 2018, Enrique Peña Nieto is recognized for his economic reforms and efforts to modernize the country's infrastructure.

AMLO

Andrés Manuel López Obrador, President of Mexico since 2018, known for his leftist policies and emphasis on social programs.

PAN

A major political party in Mexico, the National Action Party (PAN) is known for its advocacy of free market policies and social conservatism.

Morena

a political party in Mexico founded by Andrés Manuel López Obrador that focuses on leftist ideology and social justice.

Populism

A political approach that seeks to represent the interests and voice of the common people, often against the elite or establishment.

Patron-client system

A political system in which powerful patrons provide resources and protection to clients in exchange for political support and loyalty.

Senate

The upper house of the Congress of Mexico, responsible for approving legislation and overseeing the executive branch.

Chamber of Deputies

The lower house of the Congress of Mexico, composed of representatives who are elected to propose and vote on legislation.

Civil Law system

A legal system based on written laws and codes, where judges interpret and apply statutes rather than relying primarily on precedent.

Federalism

A political system where power is divided between a central authority and constituent political units.

Parastatals

State-owned enterprises or agencies that operate in various sectors, often involved in providing public services or goods.

Pemex

Mexico's state-owned oil company, responsible for managing the country's petroleum resources and production.

INE

The National Electoral Institute in Mexico overseeing elections and ensuring democratic processes.

PRD

A major political party in Mexico, the Party of the Democratic Revolution, known for its leftist policies and commitment to democratic governance.