PSYCHC MIDTERM 1 Part 2: 5, 11, 8

Sensation

The process of detecting environmental stimuli or stimuli arising from the body. (5)

Perception

The process of interpreting sensory information. (5)

Stimulus

Anything that can elicit a reaction from our sensory systems. (5)

Transduction

The translation of incoming sensory information into neural signals. (5)

Sensory adaptation

The tendency to pay less attention to an unchanging source of stimulation. (5)

Bottom-up processing

Perception based on building simple input into more complex perceptions. (5)

Top-down processing

A perceptual process in which memory and other cognitive processes are required for interpreting incoming sensory information. (5)

Psychophysics

The study of relationships between the physical qualities of stimuli and the subjective responses they produce. (5)

Absolute threshold

The smallest amount of stimulus that can be detected. (5)

Difference threshold

The smallest detectable difference between two stimuli. (5)

Signal detection

The analysis of sensory and decision making processes in the detection of faint, uncertain stimuli. (5)

Vision

The sense that allows us to process reflected light. (5)

Cornea

The clear surface at the front of the eye that begins the process of directing light to the retina. (5)

Pupil

An opening formed by the muscles of the iris; the opening is adjusted according to how much light is present. (5)

Iris

The brightly colored circular muscle surrounding the pupil of the eye. (5)

Lens

The clear structure behind the pupil that bends light towards the retina. (5)

Retina

Layers of visual processing cells in the back of the eye. (5)

Fovea

An area of the retina that is specialized for highly detailed vision. (5)

Optic nerve

The nerve exiting the retina of the eye that cross the midline known as the optic chiasm. (5)

Optic tract

Nerve pathways traveling from the optic chiasm to the thalamus, hypothalamus, and midbrain. (5)

Trichromacy theory

A theory of color vision based on the existence of different types of cones for the detection of short (blue), medium (green), and long (red) wavelengths. (5)

Opponent process theory

A theory of color vision that suggests we have a red-green color channel and a blue-yellow color channel in which activation of one color in each pair inhibits the other. (5)

Feature detector

A hypothetical cell that responds to only one specific visual stimulus. (5)

Depth perception

The ability to use the two-dimensional image projected on the retina to perceive three dimensions. (5)

Monocular cue

A depth cue that requires the use of only one eye. (5)

Binocular cue

A depth cue that requires the use of both eyes. (5)

Retinal disparity

The difference between the images projected onto each eye. (5)

Audition

The sense of hearing. (5)

Cochlea

Basilar membrane

Membrane in the cochlea on which the organ of Corti is located. (5)

Organ of Corti

A structure located on the basilar membrane that contains auditory receptors. (5)

Auditory nerve

Nerve carrying sound information from the cochlea to the brain. (5)

Somatosensation

The body senses, including body position, touch, skin temperature, and pain. (5)

Vestibular system

The system in the inner ear that provides information about body position and movement. (5)

Gate theory

The theory that suggests that input from touch fibers competes with input from pain receptors, possibly preventing pain messages from reaching the pain. (5)

Olfaction

Sense of smell. (5)

Gustation

Sense of taste. (5)

Olfactory nerve

A nerve carrying olfactory information from the olfactory receptors to the olfactory bulbs. (5)

Olfactory bulb

One of two structures below the frontal lobes of the brain that receive input from the olfactory receptors in the nose. (5)

Papillae

Small bumps on the tongue that contain taste buds. (5)

Taste bud

A structure found in papillae that contains taste receptor cells. (5)

Reflex

Instinct

An inborn pattern of behavior elicited by environmental stimuli. Also known as a fixed action pattern. (8)

Learning

A relatively permanent change in behavior or the capacity for behavior due to experience. (8)

Associative learning

The formation of associations or connections among stimuli and behaviors. (8)

Classical conditioning

A type of learning in which associations are formed between two stimuli that occur sequentially in time. (8)

Operant conditioning

A type of learning in which associations are formed between behaviors and their outcomes. (8)

Nonassociative conditioning

Learning that involves changes in the magnitude of responses to a stimulus. (8)

Habituation

A simple form of learning in which reactions to repeated stimuli that are unchanging and harmless decrease. (8)

Sensitization

An increased reaction to many stimuli following exposure to one very strong stimulus. (8)

Observational learning

Learning that occurs when an organism watches the actions of another. Also known as social learning or modeling. (8)

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

An environmental event whose significance is learned through classical conditioning. (8)

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that elicits a response without any prior experience. (8)

Conditioned response (CR)

A response learned through classical conditioning. (8)

Unconditioned response (UCR)

A response to an unconditioned stimulus that requires no previous experienced. (8)

Acquisition

The development of a learned response. (8)

Extinction

The reduction of a learned response. In classical conditioning, extinction occurs when the unconditioned stimulus no longer follows the conditioned stimulus. In operant conditioning, extinction occurs when the consequence no longer follows the learned behavior. (8)

Spontaneous recovery

During extinction training, the reappearance of conditioned responses after periods of rest. (8)

Inhibition

A feature of classical conditioning in which a conditioned stimulus actually predicts the nonoccurrence of an unconditioned stimulus. (8)

Generalization

The tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to an original unconditioned stimulus. (8)

Discrimination

A learned ability to distinguish between stimuli. Unfair behavior based on stereotyping and prejudice (8, 13)

Higher order conditioning

Learning in which stimuli associated with a conditioned stimulus also elicit conditioned responding. (8)

Latent inhibition

The slower learning that occurs when a conditioned stimulus is already familiar compared to when the conditioned stimulus is unfamiliar. (8)

Systematic desensitization

A type of counter conditioning in which people relax while being exposed to stimuli that elicit fear. (8)

Conditioned reinforcer

A reinforcer that gains value from being associated with other things that are valued. Also known as a secondary reinforcer. (8)

Negative reinforcement

A method for increasing behaviors that allow an organism to escape or avoid an unpleasant consequence. (8)

Punishment

A consequence that eliminates or reduces the frequency of a behavior. (8)

Positive punishment

A consequence that eliminates or reduces the frequency of a behavior by applying an aversive stimulus. (8)

Negative punishment

A method for reducing behavior by removing something desirable whenever the target behavior occurs. (8)

Partial reinforcement

The reinforcement of a desired behavior on some occasions, but not others. (8)

Fixed ratio (FR) schedule

A schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement occurs following a set number of behaviors. (8)

Variable ratio (VR) schedule

A schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement occurs following some variable number of behaviors. (8)

Fixed interval (FI) schedule

A schedule of reinforcement in which the first response following a specified interval will be reinforced. (8)

Variable interval (VI) schedule

A schedule of reinforcement in which the first response following a varying period of time is reinforced. (8)

Partial reinforcement effect in extinction

The more rapid extinction observed following continuous reinforcement than following partial reinforcement. (8)

Shaping/method of successive approximations

A method for increasing the frequency of behaviors that never or rarely occur. (8)

Latent learning

Learning that occurs in the absence of reinforcement. (8)

Token economy

An application of operant conditioning in which tokens that can be exchanged for other reinforcers are used to increase the frequency of desirable behaviors. (8)

Imitation

The copying of behavior that is unlikely to occur naturally and spontaneously. (8)

Assimilation

The incorporation of new learning into an existing schema, without the need to revise the schema. (11)

Accomodation

The incorporation of new learning into an existing schema that requires the revision of the schema. (11)

Sensorimotor stage

Piaget's stage of development beginning at birth and characterized by active exploration of the environment. (11)

Object permanence

The ability to form mental representations of objects that are no longer present. (11)

Preoperational stage

Piaget's stage of development beginning at the age of 2 years and ending at the age of 6 years and characterized by the use of symbols, egocentrism, and limits on the ability to reason logically. (11)

Conservation

The ability to understand that changing the form or appearance of an object does not change its quantity. (11)

Egocentrism

Limitations on the ability to understand the point of view of other people. (11)

Concrete operational stage

Piaget's stage of development beginning at the age of 6 years and ending at the age of 12 years and characterized by logical but not abstract reasoning. (11)

Formal operational stage

Piaget's stage of development beginning at age 12 and extending through adulthood and characterized by mature reasoning capabilities. (11)

Theory of mind (TOM)

The understanding that others have thoughts that are different from one's own. (11)

Attachment

Emotional bonding between an infant and a parent or caregiver. (11)

Secure attachment

A pattern of infant-caregiver bonding in which children explore confidently and return to the parent or caregiver for reassurance. (11)

Insecure attachment

A pattern of infant-caregiver bonding that can take several different forms but is generally characterized as less desirable for the child's outcomes than secure attachment. (11)