Back Seat Pilot (Pilot Qualifications, Airspace, Airworthiness Requirements, Weather)

Three things needed for a thunderstorm to form

Moisture, unstable air, and a lifting force (such as heating, terrain, or a front).

Types of thunderstorms

Single-cell (airmass), multicell, squall line, and supercell.

What causes a temperature inversion?

When air near the surface is cooler than the air above it, trapping pollutants and causing smooth air with poor visibility.

Stable vs. Unstable Air

Stable air resists vertical movement (stratus clouds, poor visibility, steady rain). Unstable air rises easily (cumulus clouds, good visibility, turbulence, showers).

What do isobars show on a weather chart?

Lines of equal pressure; closely spaced isobars mean strong winds, widely spaced mean light winds.

What is a cold front?

A boundary where a cold air mass replaces a warm one, producing cumuliform clouds, turbulence, and possible thunderstorms.

What is a warm front?

Warm air slides over cooler air, producing layered clouds, steady precipitation, and poor visibility.

Stationary front

Two air masses meet and neither advances; can cause prolonged periods of clouds and precipitation.

Occluded front

When a cold front overtakes a warm front, trapping warm air aloft and creating complex weather with both convective and stable characteristics.

What does a METAR report?

Current observed weather at an airport—includes wind, visibility, weather phenomena, sky condition, temperature, dew point, and altimeter setting.

What does a TAF provide?

A Terminal Aerodrome Forecast—predicted weather conditions within 5 SM of an airport, valid for 24-30 hours.

"VC" in a METAR or TAF

Means weather occurring 'in the vicinity,' usually within 5-10 miles of the reporting station.

Ceiling

The lowest broken or overcast layer of clouds (BKN or OVC) or vertical visibility into obscuration.

What does "FEW," "SCT," "BKN," and "OVC" mean?

FEW = few clouds (1-2/8 coverage), SCT = scattered (3-4/8), BKN = broken (5-7/8, ceiling), OVC = overcast (8/8, ceiling).

Dew point

The temperature at which air becomes saturated and condensation begins; closer temperature and dew point = higher humidity and potential fog.

Types of fog

Radiation (night cooling), advection (warm moist air over cold surface), upslope (air forced up terrain), steam (cold air over warm water), frontal (from precipitation).

What is wind shear?

A sudden change in wind speed or direction over a short distance, dangerous during takeoff or landing, often associated with thunderstorms or temperature inversions.

Microburst

A strong downdraft from a thunderstorm that spreads out near the ground, causing severe wind shear—can exceed 6,000 ft/min downward.

What is icing and when does it form?

Ice forms when visible moisture contacts a surface at or below freezing; most hazardous in cumulus clouds between 0°C and -15°C.

Structural icing types

Clear (hard, smooth), rime (rough, opaque), and mixed (combination).

Frost hazards

Frost disrupts airflow and can increase stall speed significantly, even if thin; must be removed before flight.

Cloud types and weather

Cumulus = unstable, turbulence; Stratus = stable, drizzle; Cirrus = high, fair weather; Nimbus = rain-producing.

What are the three main cloud levels?

Low (surface-6,500 ft), middle (6,500-20,000 ft), and high (20,000 ft+).

How does pressure change with altitude?

Pressure decreases roughly 1 inch of mercury per 1,000 feet gained in altitude.

Pressure decrease with altitude

Pressure decreases roughly 1 inch of mercury per 1,000 feet gained in altitude.

Temperature effect on aircraft performance

High temperature (and humidity) decreases air density—reduces engine power, prop efficiency, and lift (high density altitude = poor performance).

SIGMET

Advises of significant weather hazardous to all aircraft—severe turbulence, icing, dust storms, volcanic ash.

AIRMET

Weather advisory for light to moderate hazards—turbulence, icing, IFR conditions—primarily for smaller aircraft.

Convective SIGMET

Issued for severe thunderstorms, surface winds ≥ 50 kts, hail ≥ ¾ inch, or tornadoes; automatically implies severe turbulence and wind shear.

Visibility types

Flight visibility (from cockpit), ground visibility (reported by observer), prevailing visibility (most common distance over half horizon).

Official weather briefings

Use FAA-approved sources such as 1800WXBRIEF, ForeFlight (Leidos), or Flight Service Stations (FSS) for standard, abbreviated, or outlook briefings.

Coriolis effect

Caused by Earth's rotation—deflects winds to the right in the Northern Hemisphere, influencing global wind patterns.

Standard temperature and pressure at sea level

15°C (59°F) and 29.92 inHg (1013.2 mb).

Flying from high to low pressure

The altimeter will read higher than actual altitude ("From high to low, look out below").

Flying from warm to cold air

The altimeter will read higher than actual altitude because cold air is denser ("From hot to cold, look out below").

Required documents on board an aircraft

• A – Airworthiness Certificate

• A – Aircraft Registration

• R – Radio Station License (if flying internationally)

• O – Operating Limitations (POH/AFM, placards)

• W – Weight and Balance Data

Airworthiness Certificate validity

As long as the aircraft meets its approved type design, is in a condition for safe operation, and maintenance/inspections are up to date.

Airworthiness Certificate display

In a cabin or cockpit entrance where it is visible to passengers and crew.

Purpose of the Airworthiness Certificate

It certifies the aircraft meets FAA safety and design standards and is approved for flight.

Types of Airworthiness Certificates

Standard (white) for normal, utility, acrobatic, commuter, and transport aircraft; Special (pink) for experimental, restricted, or light-sport.

Pilot documents for PIC

Pilot certificate, government-issued photo ID, and valid medical certificate (if required).

Type Certificate (TC)

FAA approval of the design of a specific aircraft, engine, or propeller model.

Supplemental Type Certificate (STC)

FAA approval for a modification to an existing aircraft design that changes its type certificate (e.g., new prop, avionics).

Airworthiness Directive (AD)

A legally enforceable rule issued by the FAA to correct unsafe conditions in an aircraft, engine, prop, or appliance.

Responsibility for AD compliance

The aircraft owner or operator, but the PIC should verify compliance before flight.

AD categorization

Emergency (immediate compliance required) or recurring (compliance at intervals).

Emergency

Immediate compliance required.

Recurring

Compliance at intervals.

Preventive maintenance

As listed in 14 CFR Part 43 Appendix A(c), such as oil changes, replacing spark plugs, or landing light bulbs.

Who can return an aircraft to service after preventive maintenance?

The pilot who performed it, provided they made a proper logbook entry including description, date, and signature with certificate number.

Required Inspections for Aircraft

A.V.I.A.T.E — Annual (12 calendar months), VOR (30 days IFR), 100-hour (if for hire/instruction), Altimeter & Pitot-static (24 months IFR), Transponder (24 months), ELT (12 months, battery ½ life or 1 hour use).

Who can perform an annual inspection?

An A&P mechanic with Inspection Authorization (IA).

Who can perform a 100-hour inspection?

An A&P mechanic (no IA required).

What's the difference between annual and 100-hour inspections?

Both are similar, but only an IA can sign off the annual. Aircraft for hire or flight instruction must also have 100-hour inspections.

Can an aircraft be flown beyond its 100-hour inspection?

Yes, by up to 10 hours to reach a location where the inspection can be done—but those hours count toward the next 100-hour limit.

What determines if an aircraft is "airworthy"?

Must conform to type design (per type certificate, ADs, STCs) and be in a condition for safe operation (no structural/mechanical defects).

What should you do if an inoperative instrument is found before flight?

Follow 91.213 — determine if the aircraft is equipped for flight using MEL or KOEL, deactivate and placard the item as "INOP," and record if required.

What is a Minimum Equipment List (MEL)?

A list of equipment that may be inoperative and still allow the aircraft to be airworthy, specific to that aircraft and approved by the FAA.

What is the KOEL?

Kinds of Operations Equipment List — found in the POH, it lists required equipment for VFR day/night and IFR flight.

What is the purpose of an aircraft logbook?

It records maintenance, inspections, repairs, and AD compliance; required for airworthiness.

What is the difference between "time in service" and "total time"?

Time in service starts when the aircraft leaves the ground and ends when it lands; total time includes taxiing and operation.

What happens if the aircraft registration expires?

The aircraft is not airworthy until it's renewed. Registration expires after 7 years or upon sale, destruction, or owner death.

How can you verify an aircraft's airworthiness before flight?

Check required documents (ARROW), confirm inspections are current, review AD compliance, ensure no inoperative required equipment, and check for safe condition.

What is "Special Flight Permit"?

Issued by the FAA to allow an unairworthy aircraft to be flown to a maintenance facility or location where repairs will be made.

When is an aircraft considered "unairworthy"?

If it does not meet type design, has expired inspections, open ADs, or unsafe mechanical conditions.

What are placards and markings?

Required safety labels and indicators for switches, limits, and instruments per the POH and FARs.

What are the six classes of controlled and uncontrolled airspace?

Class A, B, C, D, E (controlled) and Class G (uncontrolled).

What are the vertical limits of Class A airspace?

Class A airspace

From 18,000 feet MSL up to and including FL600, overlying the continental U.S. and offshore areas within 12 NM of the coast.

Requirements to operate in Class A airspace

IFR flight plan, instrument rating, two-way radio, Mode C transponder, and ADS-B Out.

Typical dimensions of Class B airspace

Surface to 10,000 feet MSL, shaped like an upside-down wedding cake surrounding the nation's busiest airports.

Equipment required in Class B airspace

Two-way radio, Mode C transponder, and ADS-B Out.

Pilot requirements before entering Class B airspace

An explicit ATC clearance ("Cleared into Class Bravo").

VFR weather minimums in Class B airspace

3 statute miles visibility and clear of clouds.

Typical dimensions of Class C airspace

Surface to 4,000 feet AGL within a 5 NM radius (inner core) and 1,200 to 4,000 feet AGL within a 10 NM radius (outer shelf).

Equipment required in Class C airspace

Two-way radio, Mode C transponder, and ADS-B Out.

Communication requirements for Class C

Two-way radio communication must be established before entering ("ATC says your call sign").

VFR weather minimums in Class C airspace

3 statute miles visibility, 500 ft below, 1,000 ft above, 2,000 ft horizontal (3-152 rule).

Typical dimensions of Class D airspace

Surface to 2,500 feet AGL, centered on an airport with an operating control tower.

Requirements to enter Class D airspace

Two-way radio communication must be established before entry.

VFR weather minimums in Class D airspace

3 SM visibility, 500 ft below, 1,000 ft above, 2,000 ft horizontal (3-152 rule).

Class D airspace when control tower closes

It often reverts to Class E or Class G, depending on local procedures (check sectional).

Typical limits of Class E airspace

Starts at either the surface, 700 ft AGL, or 1,200 ft AGL, up to but not including 18,000 ft MSL.

Equipment required in Class E airspace

None for VFR, but ADS-B Out is required above 10,000 ft MSL (excluding below 2,500 ft AGL).

VFR weather minimums in Class E airspace below 10,000 ft MSL

3 SM visibility, 500 ft below, 1,000 ft above, 2,000 ft horizontal (3-152 rule).

VFR weather minimums in Class E airspace above 10,000 ft MSL

5 SM visibility, 1,000 ft below, 1,000 ft above, 1 SM horizontal (5-111 rule).

Class G airspace

Uncontrolled airspace where ATC has no authority or responsibility to separate aircraft.

VFR weather minimums in Class G airspace below 1,200 ft AGL (day)

1 SM visibility and clear of clouds.

VFR weather minimums in Class G airspace below 1,200 ft AGL (night)

3 SM visibility, 500 ft below, 1,000 ft above, 2,000 ft horizontal.

VFR weather minimums in Class G airspace above 1,200 ft AGL (day)

1 SM visibility, 500 ft below, 1,000 ft above, 2,000 ft horizontal.

VFR weather minimums in Class G airspace above 1,200 ft AGL (night)

3 SM visibility, 500 ft below, 1,000 ft above, 2,000 ft horizontal.

VFR weather minimums in Class G airspace above 10,000 ft MSL

5 SM visibility, 1,000 ft below, 1,000 ft above, 1 SM horizontal (5-111 rule).

Mode C Veil

Not defined in the provided text.

Definition

A 30 NM radius around Class B airports where a Mode C transponder and ADS-B Out are required, from surface to 10,000 ft MSL.

What is Special VFR (SVFR)?

ATC clearance allowing flight in controlled airspace with visibility below VFR minimums but at least 1 SM and clear of clouds.

When is SVFR not allowed?

At night unless the pilot is instrument-rated and the aircraft is equipped for IFR.

What is the difference between Class E to surface and Class E starting at 700 or 1,200 ft?

Class E to surface supports instrument approaches; 700 or 1,200 ft usually transition areas between controlled and uncontrolled airspace.

How are Class E and G boundaries shown on a sectional?

Class E to surface: dashed magenta line. Class E starting at 700 ft: shaded magenta. Class E starting at 1,200 ft: shaded blue.

What airspace requires a transponder and ADS-B Out above 10,000 ft MSL?

All airspace except below 2,500 ft AGL.

What is prohibited airspace?

Airspace established for national security reasons; flight is not allowed (e.g., P-56 over the White House).