Mycenaean and Early Iron Age Societies: Key Features and Collapse

What defined the Mycenaean civilization of the Late Bronze Age (c. 1550-1100 BC)?

. A centralized palace-based system with fortified citadels, warrior-elite society, and wide Mediterranean trade networks.

. Dominated by strong palatial centres (e.g., Mycenae), a redistributive economy recorded in Linear B, elite burials with rich grave goods, and powerful architecture (e.g., megaron, cyclopean walls).

. Highly interconnected with Egypt, the Near East, Anatolia through trade - shown by the ivory figurines with boar-tusk helmets found in grave circle A.

What were the key defensive features of a Mycenaean citadel (esp. Mycenae)?

. Built on high plateaus; massive 6m-thick double walls filled with rubble. Two masonry types: Ashlar (fine, used at Lion Gate) & Cyclopean (huge boulders).

. Expanded c. 1400, 1250, 1200 BC.

. 1250BC Added: postern gate, defensive spur at Lion Gate forcing attackers to expose their right side which carried a sword. Lion Gate uses relieving triangle over 20-tonne lintel. Grave circle A added inside city walls - unusual.

. 1200BC: hidden staircase to underground cistern for siege water.

What was the megaron and what does it reveal about Mycenaean administration?

A 3-room central hall: porch with 2 columns → antechamber → main hall with central hearth and 4 columns. Heart of the palace and ritual/political gathering space.

What do the Linear B tablets reveal?

. Clay tablets from Pylos, Mycenae, Tyrins, elsewhere during the Late Bronze Age.

. Preserved due to accidental fire

. Administration recorded on Linear B tablets: redistributive economy collecting goods (wheat, oil, livestock), storing and reallocating resources, tracking offerings to gods. Ruler = Wanax, with hierarchical bureaucracy.

. Early form of Greek language which was adapted from Linear A used by Minoans on Crete

. Also give the names of Dieties through describing their offerings to them.

. Overall, they give information about administration, economy, and religion through minute details.

. These linear B tablets and writing system disappeared entirely. Because its sole purpose was to serve the complex administrative and redistributive economy of the palaces, the script became obsolete once that system disintegrated.

What evidence shows Mycenaean society was warlike?

Huge fortifications; battle scenes (e.g., Silver Siege Rhyton); weapons in elite burials; boar's tusk helmets (matching Homeric descriptions); elite graves full of swords, daggers, spears. Emphasis on martial identity of elites.

What evidence suggests long-distance trade in the Mycenaean world?

Ivory figurines (imported from Egypt/North Africa), exotic materials in graves, widespread Mycenaean pottery exports. Reflects integration into Mediterranean exchange networks.

What were the main elite burial types?

. Shaft tombs (Grave circle A, c. 15th Century BC, Mycenae)

. Tholos Tombs (Treasury of Atreus in Mycenae)

Describe the Shaft tombs

. Deep shafts (40ft) with stone stelae; later enclosed inside citadel walls in 1250BC (showing ancestral reverence).

. As found by Henrik Schlieman, grave goods: gold masks (incl. mis-named "Mask of Agamemnon"), gold diadems, lion-head gold rhyton, niello daggers with lion-hunt scenes.

. While the Tholos tombs were robbed, the contents of these graves remained.

Describe the Tholos Tombs

. A tholos ("beehive") tomb is a monumental Mycenaean elite burial structure, typically from c. 1500-1250 BC, with the following features:

- Dromos: Long ceremonial entrance passage leading to the tomb.

- Stomion: Tall stone-framed doorway, often with finely cut ashlar masonry.

- Relieving triangle: Space above the lintel to divert weight (same technique as Lion Gate).

- Thalamos: Large circular burial chamber with a corbel-vaulted, beehive-shaped roof reaching up to 10-15m high.

- Corbelled masonry: Stones laid in inward-projecting rings, creating the dome-like chamber.

- Occasional side chambers for additional burials or goods.

. Example: The "Treasury of Atreus" at Mycenae.

. However, these tombs were robbed of their contents

Why are the Tholos tombs significant?

. Symbols of elite power: Their monumental scale projected the authority and wealth of ruling families.

. Evidence of centralised organisation: Construction required skilled labour, resources, and leadership—reflecting palatial control.

. Ritual and ancestral significance: Served as focal points for elite funerary ceremonies and ancestor veneration.

. Rich grave goods: Contained gold, weapons, luxury imports—revealing trade networks, craftsmanship, and elite ideology.

. Architectural innovation: The largest corbelled vaults of the Bronze Age, show Mycenaean engineering feats .

. Archaeological value: Provide crucial evidence for Mycenaean social hierarchy, warfare, craftsmanship, and beliefs which can be later contrasted with the early iron age, symbolising what parts of society transformed.

According to Colin Renfrew, how can we identify the collapse of the Mycenaean palatial system (c. 1200 BC)?

1. Collapse of central administrative organization.

Example: The great palatial kingdoms centered at sites like Mycenae and Pylos vanished. The complex, hierarchical administrative structure they commanded, headed by the wanax, disappeared. Tellingly, while the title wanax did not survive as a term for a ruler, the lower-ranking title basileus persisted and was later transformed to denote the leaders of post-palatial communities.

2. Disappearance of the traditional elite class.

Example: The ruling class that had commissioned monumental tombs and was buried with extraordinary wealth ceased to exist in its previous form. This is starkly visible in the archaeological record, with the abrupt end of elite funerary traditions like the construction of elaborate tholos tombs. The ideology and symbols of their power, such as the megaron, were abandoned.

3. Collapse of a centralized economy.

Example: The Linear B writing system disappeared entirely. Because its sole purpose was to serve the complex administrative and redistributive economy of the palaces, the script became obsolete once that system disintegrated.

4. Settlement shift and population decline.

Example: Archaeological surveys show a dramatic reduction in the number of occupied sites in Greece after 1200 BC, indicating significant depopulation and a shift toward smaller, more dispersed communities.

5. Transition to a lower level of socio-political integration.

Example: The cultural uniformity promoted by the palaces, visible in pottery styles, gave way to distinct and diverse regional variations, indicating the breakdown of centralized control and interconnectedness.

What are the individual reasons for the collapse of Mycenae

. Earthquakes

. Climate change and drought

. Internal rebellions

. Disruption of international trade routes

. Invasion/migration (Dorians, non-palatial Mycenaeans, Northerners, Sea Peoples)

. World-system collapse

What are the issues with certain individual reasons for the collapse of the Bronze Age?

. Earthquakes - societies normally recover from these

. Famine, drought, climate change - societies again normally recover fromthese, and scientific data do not allow toestablish a precise point in time as to whendroughts and climate change may haveseverely impacted the region

. Rebellions - but this is neither certain nor can it be theonly reason for such a large scalephenomenon.

. Migration/invasion - not clear whether they moved because of the crisis or caused the crisis with their movements.

. International trade routes were affected - the extent to which this affected eachindividual civilization is not clear; there's also evidence that some of those civilization werenever completely cut off from trade networks.

How was the Mycenaean collapse part of a larger regional crisis?

The collapse was not a uniquely Greek phenomenon.

It was a widespread crisis that affected major civilizations across the region, including the powerful Hittite Empire in Anatolia, which disintegrated completely.

Egyptian sources offer a dramatic, if problematic, account of this period.

An inscription of Pharaoh Ramses III at Medinet Habu describes his victory over a hostile confederation of invaders he calls the "Sea Peoples," who allegedly swept through the Eastern Mediterranean, destroying everything in their path before being stopped at the Egyptian border.

However, this narrative must be treated with caution. It is a piece of royal propaganda designed to glorify the pharaoh, and its account of a single, unified wave of destruction is not fully supported by the archaeological evidence.

What is the modern "systems collapse" explanation for the 1200 BC upheaval?

This theory is headed by Eric Cline, "systems collapse"—a perfect storm where multiple destructions factors converged, leading to a cascading failure.

This theory is based on three key concepts:

. Multiplier Effect: A series of disasters (e.g., an earthquake, followed by a drought, followed by opportunistic invaders) occurred in rapid succession. The society, already weakened by the first event, could not withstand the combined impact, with each new crisis magnifying the effects of the others.

. Domino Effect: The civilizations of the Late Bronze Age were highly interconnected through trade and diplomacy. They were interdependent, meaning the disintegration of one major partner (like the Hittite Empire) could trigger the collapse of others that relied on it for trade and stability.

. Complexity: The very complexity and interdependence of these societies made them fragile. A disturbance to one part of the highly integrated system—such as the disruption of a key trade route for essential metals—could cause the entire structure to become unstable and collapse.

This period of widespread crisis and destruction gave way to a new era of reorganization and transformation, now known as the Early Iron Age.

What defined society in the Early Iron Age (c. 1200-750 BC)?

Social Structure: Society was organized around small-sized social units and households, rather than large palatial states.

Political Instability: The power vacuum left by the palaces was filled by competitive local leaders and military groups.

Elite Identity: The rise of "warrior burials" became a defining feature, where elite males were distinguished by the inclusion of weapons (swords, spearheads) and armor in their graves.

Shifting Prosperity: Regions that had been on the periphery of the old palace centers, such as the island of Euboea, rose to prominence and prosperity - Lefkandi

Regionalism: The cultural uniformity of the palatial era was replaced by the emergence of distinct regional pottery styles.

. Technology: Iron was gradually but significantly introduced for the production of tools and, most importantly, weapons.

. Continuity: Despite the collapse, social hierarchy persisted, and overseas contacts were maintained, as evidenced by exotic goods from the Near East found in elite graves.

What makes Lefkandi a key archaeological site for the Early Iron Age?

. Exceptionally prosperous settlement (950-700 BC) showing continuity of wealth, craftsmanship, and trade after collapse. Consists of hill settlement (Xeropolis) and cemeteries at Toumba. Demonstrates elite power, eastern imports, horse burials, and a more complex society than "Dark Age" suggests.

What is the significance of the Toumba "Heroon" at Lefkandi? (c. 950 BC)

A monumental 50m apsidal building—possibly a chief's residence or funerary heroon.

Contained:

• Cremated warrior in bronze amphora with iron sword, arrowhead, whetstone.

• Richly adorned woman with gold ornaments + Near Eastern heirloom necklace.

• Four horses buried in a separate shaft.Building dismantled & covered by a mound; later community buried around it—suggests heroic ancestry and status of ruling elite.

What does Tomb 79 (c. 825 BC) reveal about elite identity in the Early Iron Age?

Mix of roles expected of leaders/elites:

• Martial prowess: iron arrowheads.

• Hospitality & social authority: bronze grater (banqueting). Feasting was a way for leaders to build alliances and prestige. This is not inherited power—it requires active social performance.

• Economic power: stone weights & scales (trade involvement).

- Leadership no longer based on inherited palatial office but on personal achievement across warfare, hospitality, and commerce—prefigures Archaic leadership models.

- This contrasts to the graves found in Mycenae where symbols of inherited office with golden masks and royal figurines were found.