Chapter 11 Sec 4

What new farming technology allowed deeper plowing of the soil?

The new iron plow.

How did the new harness improve farming efficiency?

It allowed people to use horses instead of oxen, making plowing faster.

What was the purpose of windmills?

They were used to grind grain into flour.

How did peasants increase land for farming?

They cleared forests, drained swamps, and reclaimed wasteland.

What was the three-field system?

A crop rotation method with three fields: one for grain, one for peas/beans, and one left unplanted to restore nutrients.

Why was the three-field system beneficial?

It improved soil fertility and increased food production.

What caused trade routes to expand?

More people started traveling through mountains to trade.

What were trade fairs?

Large annual gatherings where merchants traded goods like farm products, animals, swords, sugar, and silks.

What was a charter?

A written document that outlined the rights and privileges of a town.

What is capital?

Money for investment.

What is a partnership?

A group of merchants pooling their funds to finance large ventures.

How did partnerships help businesses?

They made capital more available and reduced risk for individual merchants.

What was the purpose of insurance?

To protect merchants from financial loss in case shipments were lost or stolen.

What was a bill of exchange?

A system where merchants deposited money in a bank in one city and withdrew it in another, reducing the need to carry gold coins.

Who were tenant farmers?

People who paid rent for land or worked as hired farm laborers.

By 1000, what new social class emerged?

The middle class, standing between nobles and peasants.

Why did nobles and clergy dislike the middle class?

They saw merchants and bankers as disruptive to traditional social order.

What were guilds?

Associations of merchants and artisans that controlled trade, set prices, and passed laws.

What were two main functions of guilds?

They levied taxes and decided how to use town funds.

What was an apprentice?

A young trainee (starting at age 7) who trained for 7 years to learn a trade.

What was a journeyman?

A salaried worker in a guild.

Did women participate in guilds?

Yes, women could be guild members and apprentices.

Which industries had a high number of women workers?

Silk and wool guilds, especially in Paris.

What were some trades where women worked as apprentices?

Ribbon making, paper making, and surgery.