Unit 1 AP Psych

nature vs nurture

one of the biggest questions in psychology: are our human traits present at birth, or do they develop through experience?

plato's opinion

we inherit most of our intelligence and characteristics and are born with them

aristotle's opinion

everything about you comes from your external experience

natural selection

a process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits.

eugenics

the science of improving a human population by controlled breeding to increase the occurrence of desirable inheritable characteristics

focus of evolutionary psychology

how are humans alike because of shared biology and evolutionary history

focus of behavior genetics

how are humans different because of their different genes and environments

mutations

random errors in gene replication that may affect our characteristics

genetic fitness

ability to survive and reproduce

adaptation

inherited characteristic that increases an organism's chance of survival

human genome

set of genes that all humans share

second darwinian revolution

the application of evolutionary principles to psychology

environment

the surroundings or conditions in which a person lives or operates.

heredity

the transmission of traits from one generation to the next

polygenetic characteristics

personal traits or physical properties that are influenced by many genes working in combination

family studies

researchers assess hereditary influence by examining blood relatives to see how much they resemble one another on a specific trait

twin studies

behavioral genetic research strategy that involves comparing the similarities of identical twin pairs adopted into different families, to determine the genetic contribution to a given trait

monozygotic twins

identical twins who share the same exact dna

dizygotic twins

fraternal twins who develop from separate eggs; more genetically similar to being siblings

epigenetics

the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change

epigenetic marks

chemical modifications to DNA that can turn genes on or off

nervous system

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

neurotransmitters

chemicals that transmit information from one neuron to another

central nervous system (CNS)

consists of the brain and spinal cord; responsible for decision making

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body

nerves

bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs

sensory neurons (afferent)

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord for processing

motor neurons (efferent)

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles; movement and senses

autonomic nervous system

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart); things like breathing + digestion

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

parasympatheic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

neural networks

interconnected neural cells. with experience, networks can learn, as feedback strengthens or inhibits connections that produce certain results.

spinal cord

a major part of the central nervous system which conducts sensory and motor nerve impulses to and from the brain

reflexes

simple, automatic responses to sensory stimuli, such as the knee-jerk response

reflex arc

A relatively direct connection between a sensory neuron and a motor neuron that allows an extremely rapid response to a stimulus, often without conscious brain involvement.

pain reflex

sensory neurons travel to interneurons in your spinal cord (burn yourself = quick reactions)

dendrite fibers

a neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

axon fibers

the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands

myelin sheath

A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.

multiple sclerosis

A chronic disease of the central nervous system marked by damage to the myelin sheath. marked by diminished muscle control and sometimes impaired cognition.

glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons (glue cells)

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

resting potential of a neuron

stable, negative charge when the cell is inactive

refractory period

a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired

all-or-none response

a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing.

synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

agonist molecules

a molecule from outside the body that is similar enough to a neurotransmitter to mimic its effects, like in certain opiate drugs, can suppress production of said neurotransmitter

antagonist molecules

A molecule from the outside of the body that blocks a neurotransmitter's function (I.e. Botulin which blocks ACh)

endocrine system

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

pituitary gland

The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, it regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

psychoactive drugs

chemicals that affect the central nervous system and alter activity in the brain producing changes is perceptions and moods

substance use disorder

continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk

depressants

drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

stimulants

drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.

halucinogens

drugs (such as LSD, acid, + marijuana) that effect mental and emotional functioning marked by distortions in sensory and perceptual experiences

acetylcholine

enables contraction of skeletal muscles, regulates heart muscles, promotes arousal in the brain, transmits messages between brain and spinal cord, depletion of this neurotransmitter is associated with alzheimer's, excessive amounts can cause cramping + drooling

glutamate

stimulate recepetors associated with learning and memory as well as sensory and motor functions, excess can cause migraines, often associated with MSG

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

inhibits firing of neurons, associated with calming effects, underproduction is connected to seizures, insomnia, and anxiety

dopamine

primarily involved in processing smooth and coordinated gross motor movements, also involved with attention and learning, reinforces the effects of several often abused drugs, lack of production is associated with parkinson's disease, also triggered by attention grabbing experiences, underproduction can lead to depression, schizophrenia, and psychosis

norepinephrine

found in the autonomic nervous system, controls sympathetic arousal by activating the heart and blood vessels, triggers fight or flight, released to enhance attention and memory for emotionally charged events

serotonin

plays role in regulation of mood, control of eating, sleep, arousal, pain regulation, and dream regulation, most anti-depressants increase levels,

serotonin syndrome

excess levels of serotonin, symptoms include diarrhea, restlessness, high blood pressure, fever, and in extreme cases seizures

endorphins

released by the pituitary gland and the hypothalamus, natural pain relievers, reduces stress, important for mood regulation, excess can lead to insomnia, sleep apnea, and addictive behaviors

substance p

regulates bone and cartilage metabolism, helps reduce stress, elevated levels can cause ibs, depression, and fibromyalgia

phrenology

the detailed study of the shape and size of the cranium as a supposed indication of character and mental abilities (historical)

biological psychologists

the scientific study of the links between biological and psychological processes

biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

neuroplasticity

the ability within the brain to constantly change both the structure and function of many cells in response to experience or trauma

lesion

tissue destruction. it is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue

optogenetics

a treatment that uses a combination of light stimulation and genetics to manipulate the activity of individual neurons

EEG (electroencephalogram)

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

MEG (magnetoencephalography)

a brain imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from the brain's natural electrical activity

CT (computed tomography)

a series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body

PET (positron emission tomography)

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy.

fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging)

a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. MRI scans show brain anatomy; fMRI scans show brain function.

hindbrain

connects the spinal cord (nervous system!) to the rest of the brain, controls things such as breathing, sleeping, arousal, coordination, and balance

midbrain

region between the hindbrain and the forebrain, controls some movement and transmits information that's important for seeing and hearing

forebrain

manages complex cognitive activities, sensory and associative functions, and voluntary motor activities

brainstem

The oldest part and central core of the brain, responsible for automatic survival functions.

medulla

the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

pons

the part of the brainstem that helps coordinate movements and control sleep

thalamus

the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the brain regions that control seeing, hearing, tasting and touching

reticular formation

a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal

cerebellum

a large structure of the hindbrain that controls fine motor skills, enables nonverbal and skill learning, also helps control voluntary movement

limbic system

neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotion, drives, and memory formation

amygdala

a limbic system structure involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression.

hypothalamus

a neural structure lying below the thalamus; directs eating, drinking, body temperature, and sexual behavior; helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion

hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process conscious explicit memories for storage

cerebral cortex

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center

motor cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

cognitive neural prosthetics

those with paralyzed limbs may be able to use their brain signals to control computers and robotic limbs

somatosensory cortex

area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

visual cortex

The visual processing areas of cortex in the occipital and temporal lobes.

auditory cortex

the area of the temporal lobe responsible for processing sound information

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking